Ethics (HSC SSCE Studies of Religion): Revision Notes
Ethics
Christian ethics provides moral guidance for how believers should live and make decisions. This revision note covers the biblical foundations of Christian ethics and explores how Christians apply ethical principles to contemporary issues including bioethics, environmental concerns, and sexual behaviour.
Foundations of Christian ethics
Christian ethical teaching stems from the Jewish scriptures, particularly the command in Leviticus 20:26: "You shall be holy ... for I, the Lord, am holy." This principle is echoed throughout the New Testament, establishing holiness as the foundation for Christian moral behaviour.
The core principles of Christian ethics draw from several biblical sources:
The Ten Commandments provide fundamental moral law, including prohibitions against murder, adultery, theft, and false witness. These commandments form the baseline for ethical behaviour across all Christian denominations.
Jesus' teachings in the Beatitudes expand ethical understanding beyond simple rule-following to attitudes of heart and mind - blessing the poor in spirit, the meek, the merciful, and the peacemakers.
Jesus' commandment to love (Romans 13:9-10) summarises all ethical teaching: "Love your neighbour as yourself. Love does no wrong to a neighbour; therefore love is the fulfilling of the law." Many Christians consider this the supreme ethical principle from which all other moral teachings flow.
The Old Testament prophets also contribute to Christian ethics. Micah 6:8 calls believers "to do justice, and to love kindness, and to walk humbly with your God." Amos 5:24 demands that "justice roll down like waters, and righteousness like an ever-flowing stream."
Sources of ethical guidance
Christians draw ethical guidance from multiple sources:
- Sacred writings (the Bible) remain the primary source, containing both specific commandments and general principles applicable to modern situations
- Church councils and synods make decisions that guide believers, particularly in the Catholic and Orthodox traditions
- Papal encyclicals carry significant authority for Catholics, addressing contemporary ethical challenges
- Christian ethicists and theologians help interpret scripture and tradition for modern contexts
- Mature Christians and spiritual advisers provide wisdom from lived experience
- Individual conscience and reason play an important role, particularly in Protestant traditions which emphasise personal relationship with God over institutional authority
Relational ethics
The Bible particularly emphasises human relationships. Marriage is considered the normative relationship, reflecting the bond between Christ and the Church (Ephesians 5:32). Drawing on Jesus' love commandment, many Christians use "relational ethics" as their framework - evaluating behaviour by how it affects relationships with God and others.
Bioethics
Bioethics examines potentially controversial aspects of biology and medicine that affect human life. These issues generally relate to the beginning of life (such as IVF, abortion, and contraception) or end of life (such as euthanasia and advance care planning). Contemporary concerns also include genetic manipulation, stem cell research, cloning, and organ donation.
Christian attitudes to bioethics vary considerably between denominations. The fundamental issue underlying most debates is the sanctity of human life, particularly questions about when life begins and ends. This makes it difficult to identify a single Christian position on bioethical issues.
Christians believe life is sacred and belongs to God. This creates serious concerns about "playing God" - while people have responsibility to heal disease, this does not necessarily mean they have the right to make life-or-death decisions.
Beginning of life issues
Abortion is the deliberate termination of pregnancy through medical or surgical means. It has long been debated among Christians, primarily through interpretation of the Sixth Commandment: "You shall not murder" (Exodus 20:13). The crucial question is when life begins - at conception, implantation, after several weeks of gestation, or at birth.
Some biblical passages relate to abortion. Exodus 21:22-25 discusses harm to a pregnant woman, treating it as a finable offence rather than capital punishment. Hosea 13:15-16 suggests abortion could be divine judgment, though interpretation is contested.
Catholic position on abortion: The Catholic Church opposes abortion under any circumstances. This reflects emphasis on procreation and the belief that the foetus becomes a human being at conception. Life is given by God and should only be taken by God. The papal encyclical Donum vitae (1987) addressed abortion, emphasising natural law - a concept developed by Thomas Aquinas in the thirteenth century.
Protestant positions on abortion: Other Christians, including many Anglicans and members of the Uniting Church, may permit abortion where the mother's health is endangered, the pregnancy resulted from rape, or severe foetal abnormalities exist. Even when abortion is accepted, it is usually seen as the lesser of two evils and an occasion for grief. Protestant churches generally emphasise individual conscience over institutional edicts.
Many Anglicans accept that abortion may not always be wrong when relational factors are considered. When choosing between the foetus's health and the mother's health, the mother must be given priority. This prioritises existing relationships over potential ones. The foetus is recognised as human, but mitigating circumstances must be considered. This approach emphasises Jesus' commandment to love over strict application of the Ten Commandments.
Some Christians belong to "right to life" movements strongly opposing abortion. In the United States, some have paradoxically bombed abortion clinics or killed abortion providers. In Australia, abortion is now legal in all states following NSW's 2019 decision to decriminalise it. In 2018, predominantly Catholic Ireland voted to overturn its abortion ban, despite 78% Catholic population - demonstrating shifting attitudes even in traditionally conservative contexts.
In-vitro fertilisation (IVF) involves conception outside the uterus in laboratory equipment (hence "test-tube baby"). For many Christians, particularly Catholics, a key concern is whether IVF assists or substitutes for the marital act of procreation. Assistance is more acceptable than substitution. The Catholic Church generally considers IVF a substitute.
Psalm 139:13 is sometimes cited as evidence against IVF: "For it was you who formed my inward parts; you knit me together in my mother's womb." This suggests God's direct involvement in natural conception.
Other concerns include:
- Whether gamete donors should be the birth parents
- Storage and disposal of excess embryos
- Selection of embryos
- Potential for genetic manipulation
Many Christians prioritise family relationships, especially in cases of infertility, making them more accepting of IVF despite theological concerns.
Stem cell research raises concerns when embryonic stem cells are used, as this harms or destroys embryos. Some Christians view this as destroying potential human life. Counter-arguments note that good results have been achieved with adult stem cells, whereas embryonic stem cell research has produced no proven results yet. Others respond that research cannot produce results until it is permitted.
A federal parliamentary bill on stem cell research passed with a conscience vote, allowing parliamentarians to vote according to personal conviction rather than party lines. Stem cells are cells not yet differentiated into specific body parts, capable of self-renewal. They offer potential treatments for Parkinson's disease, spinal cord injuries, and other conditions.
Genetic manipulation is increasingly controversial as technology develops. This raises questions about what makes a human being, especially with the potential to transfer genetic material between species (already done with plants). Gene technology could eradicate conditions like Down syndrome and Parkinson's disease, but also raises the possibility of creating "perfect" babies. Hospitals and research institutions in Australia are governed by strict ethical guidelines and federal laws.
End of life issues
Euthanasia (sometimes called assisted suicide) is a particular concern for Australian Christians. Again, the issue centres on taking life, which is considered God's prerogative, not the role of humans including doctors or relatives (Deuteronomy 32:39). Euthanasia is considered viable by many when there is little hope for cure of terminal illness and the person experiences great suffering or pain.
In 1995, the Northern Territory passed legislation allowing euthanasia. This generated massive opposition, with the Federal Government Senate Committee receiving over 12,000 submissions - more than any government inquiry since Federation. Religious groups, especially Catholic and Anglican churches, strongly opposed the legislation. The federal government overturned it in 1997, though several people were legally euthanised before repeal. In 2019, Victoria legalised euthanasia.
Active vs passive euthanasia: The National Council of Churches in Australia rejected active euthanasia (deliberately causing death to end suffering) but found passive euthanasia (refusing intervention or withdrawing treatment) more acceptable. The Anglican Synod and Catholic Bishops Conference rejected euthanasia entirely. The Uniting Church advocated increased funding for palliative care as a more humane option, while conceding room for discussion.
Palliative care - medical care relieving pain, symptoms, and stress for dying patients - is widely supported by churches as an alternative to euthanasia. Most churches advocate increased palliative care funding rather than legalising euthanasia.
Despite church opposition, public support for euthanasia is growing. A 1998 Christian Research Association survey found about 70% of Australians (and 84% of those not regularly attending church) supported the concept of euthanasia. Support appears to be increasing even among Christians.
Other considerations
Important concerns include the character and motivations of decision-makers. Carefully considered decisions about euthanasia and abortion with input from doctors and counsellors may be more acceptable than decisions by family members who may have personal motives (such as inheritance).
The key concern in bioethics is defining when human life begins. Is it at fertilisation (the Catholic view) or later? Much debate hinges on this fundamental question.
Environmental ethics
Growing awareness of environmental issues - including population growth, resource depletion, biodiversity loss, waste disposal (especially nuclear), and climate change - has increased focus on Christian environmental ethics. This world is the only place humans can live, making environmental care crucial.
Biblical foundations
Christians recognise the world as God's creation, with humans as stewards or caretakers (Genesis 2:15). Genesis 1:28 also gives humans responsibility to "have dominion" over the world: "Fill the earth and subdue it; and have dominion over the fish of the sea and over the birds of the air and over every living thing that moves upon the earth."
This passage forms the basis for different approaches in Christian environmental ethics. Some Christians believe dominion grants humans the right to use, exploit, and develop the world as they see fit. Others interpret it as imposing a duty of care. While some see dominion as licence for exploitation, others see responsibility.
Psalm 8 speaks of the created world's wonder and human responsibility. The naming of animals (Genesis 2:20) does not suggest power but rather relationship - given how "name" is used in the Old Testament.
Some Christians note that creation was cursed after the Fall (Genesis 3:17) and awaits renewal on judgment day (Romans 8:18-25, Revelation 21:1). As Christians share in heaven's future glory through Christ's redemption, so creation can share in future glory through proper human care. This provides theological rationale for Christian environmentalism.
Core Christian beliefs about the environment
Christians generally believe:
- God created the Earth
- God appointed humans as Earth's caretakers
- The Earth was "very good" (Genesis 1:31)
- The Fall spoiled the created world through selfish and sinful attitudes
- Humans should wisely use Earth's resources, protecting as well as using them
- Humans should not exploit or abuse the Earth
- Earth will share in the recreation of the New Heavens and New Earth
The Bible states this world is God's world (Psalm 24:1), as are all creatures upon it (Psalm 50:10-11). God cares for this world (Matthew 5:45, 6:26-30) and has not renounced that care. As God's people in God's world, Christians are called to continue that care. This has implications for animal rights, global trading, genetically modified food, and many related issues.
Ecotheology
In the first half of the twentieth century, American ecologist Aldo Leopold developed groundwork for what became ecotheology - theology relating to environmental care. Ecotheology stresses that all creation is part of God's creative work and should be treated with reverence. Nature has value to God, both living and non-living - humans, animals, plants, rocks, rivers, and mountains.
Agreement is not always possible between Christians taking "dominion" (exploitation) and "care" (stewardship) approaches. However, major Christian figures throughout history have championed environmental care, including St Francis of Assisi, St Hildegard of Bingen, and liberation theologian Leonardo Boff.
Christianity's history, particularly during the colonial era, more closely aligned with environmental exploitation, largely supporting government expansion and colonisation. This makes the current environmental movement within Christianity particularly significant.
Contemporary Christian environmentalism
In recent years, climate change has come to the forefront with extreme weather conditions and increased natural disasters reported globally. This has raised questions about nuclear energy as a carbon-free energy source, though disasters like Chernobyl and Fukushima indicate significant dangers. Other issues include deforestation and alternative energy sources. Wind and solar power are growing in Australia.
Catholic environmental action: Pope John Paul II's 1990 World Day of Peace message "Peace with God the Creator, peace with all of creation" gave new impetus to Catholic environmentalists. In 2015, Pope Francis addressed environmental issues and climate change in his encyclical letter Laudato si' - a strongly worded and controversial statement calling for "swift and unified global action."
Following the 1990 papal message, Catholic Earthcare Australia was formed. It seeks to promote understanding that our planet is sacred and must be protected and sustained for present and future generations. It conducts environmental research and provides educational resources to schools and parishes.
Australian Catholic theologian Professor Denis Edwards was deeply committed to ecotheology. He was awarded an Order of Australia Medal in 2012 for contributions to the Archdiocese, theological education, developing the Church's ecological tradition, and contributing to eco-mission globally. He died in March 2019.
Ecumenical environmental action: The National Council of Churches in Australia (NCCA), representing Australian churches, has lobbied the government about renewable energy, climate change, and political decisions causing poverty and environmental degradation. The Uniting and Catholic Churches, together with the NCCA, produced "Changing Climate, Changing Creation" in conjunction with the Australian Conservation Foundation (a non-religious organisation).
Since his 2013 election, Pope Francis has made numerous important statements about Catholic environmental concern. His 2015 encyclical Laudato si' is a particularly significant and strongly worded statement on the need for urgent environmental action.
Australian Christianity and the environment
Australian Christians are rediscovering environmentalism as they develop local spirituality harmonising with the unique Australian environment. There have been attempts to reconcile Christian theology with Australian spirituality and the desert fathers of early Christianity with the Australian outback. According to this approach, the Australian environment is seen as a significant part of spirituality and must be protected.
Genetically modified agriculture has emerged as a recent environmental issue. Some Christians see this as a means of providing food to starving people - thus a Christian responsibility. Others view it as exploitation at the expense of the developing world and agricultural diversity.
Differences in opinion between Christians tend to follow political rather than denominational lines. Every Australian Christian church has called for environmental concern, and churches actively work with numerous community organisations, and cooperatively with each other, to promote environmental protection.
Sexual ethics
Special attention should be given to how sources of Christian ethics apply to sexual behaviour. At least one of the Ten Commandments (the prohibition against adultery) applies directly to sexual ethics. Jesus' commandment to love also has direct implications for this area.
Premarital and extramarital sex
Premarital sex describes sexual activity before marriage. Because the Bible was written when people married early (just after puberty in many cases), the issue of premarital sex was relatively unimportant. Thus premarital sex is not directly addressed in Christian scripture. Some passages, such as 1 Corinthians 7:8-9, suggest that the solution for being "aflame with passion" is to marry. These words sit uneasily in the modern world, where teenage marriage is not considered acceptable for many reasons, including potential interference with education and career choices. This raises the question: how are biblical statements and principles applied to the modern world?
The challenge of application: The Bible was written when people married very young (just after puberty in many cases), making the issue of premarital sex relatively unimportant in biblical times. Modern Australians typically marry decades later, creating significant challenges for applying biblical principles to contemporary sexual ethics.
Conservative Christian approaches: Some modern Christian groups, particularly Pentecostal churches, have taken a strong stand against premarital sex, quoting references to purity as evidence that Christians should maintain high sexual morality, and advocating younger marriage. In 1 Corinthians 7:1-7, Paul underlines the need for men and women to be pure of Satan's influence by being married and satisfying each other's sexual needs. His calls to purity are seen by some Christians as prohibiting premarital sex.
Many Christian websites focus not on scripture but on the practicalities of abstaining from sex. They refer to unplanned pregnancies and sexually transmitted infections. They describe the ideal of marriage as something entered into by a man and woman who have kept themselves virginal. Thus premarital sex is described as something to be avoided.
Christians develop the Jewish idea that sex was created by God and sanctified by marriage for the purpose of procreation (having children). Premarital sex challenges the correct functioning of this system. Essentially, adherents may be encouraged to marry young and start families. The New Testament calls on men and women to remain sexually "pure." The Old Testament focuses particularly on women; in Genesis, because of Eve, women are seen as temptresses responsible for humanity's fall from paradise. This led to restrictions against young women engaging in premarital sex.
Contrasting with modern reality: The ideal of lifelong marriage is becoming less common in Western society. The Christian view of lifelong marriage may seem unrealistic in today's world. In modern Australian society, young people marry decades later than their ancient and medieval counterparts. Moreover, marriage is seen as irrelevant by some sectors of society. When marriage does occur, there are real chances of it failing.
This may partly result from marriages today being made through love. For most of history, marriages were arranged by parents for economic, political, or class-based reasons. If someone marries because of parental will and economic reasons rather than love, there may be less reason to divorce. Divorce in these cases was viewed as less acceptable.
Many Australians have developed generally accepted morality of serial monogamy - taking one partner, then leaving them if they fall out of love or fall in love with someone else, then taking a new partner and starting a new relationship. Opposed to this, Christian ethics on premarital sex support the traditional ideal that a man and woman will marry as virgins and remain married for life.
Biblical sources on extramarital sex: The major issue for heterosexual sex in the Christian Bible is not premarital sex but adultery, which is prohibited. Having sex with another man's wife is seen as violation of that man's property rights. Men and women are both expected to avoid adultery. This helps explain Jesus' attitude to the woman caught in adultery (John 8:1-11). Jesus asked the accusers to examine their motives in seeking the woman's stoning, and their own failures. He also told the woman, "Do not sin again." Incest and bestiality are also prohibited in the Bible.
Some traditional followers of Christianity believe women should be virgins when they marry. Exodus 22:16 explains how men who have sex with virgins should then marry them or pay monetary compensation to the virgin's father. Deuteronomy 22:13-21 deals with a man accusing his new wife of not being a virgin. According to these passages, if proof exists that she is a virgin, the husband is penalised for his suspicions; if no proof can be found, the woman can be stoned to death.
This attitude to women as property had changed by Paul's time, when he asked men to "treat younger women like sisters in purity" (1 Timothy 5:2). Modern theologians use Paul's general calls to purity as argument against premarital sex (for example, 1 Thessalonians 4:3).
Important context: The New Testament is silent on premarital sex as opposed to the Jewish-based Old Testament. Therefore, absence of New Testament teaching means we lack clear record of this aspect of sexual ethics. The books of the Bible served different purposes. Paul's strong stance on sexual ethics in his letters indicates he was concerned about his communities mixing with the sexual behaviours of non-believers (or behaviours from their former lives before believing in Christ), rather than addressing premarital sex specifically.
Homosexuality
The word homosexuality comes from the Greek prefix homo meaning "the same." It relates to individuals attracted to their own gender - men to men (gay) and women to women (lesbian). The term technically includes lesbians, but the designations gay and lesbian are seen as more inclusive. The abbreviation "LGBTQIA" (lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer, intersex, asexual) is used as even more inclusive.
Homosexuality can designate a love relationship between two people of the same gender, or simply refer to sexual behaviour between people of the same gender. The Bible has some prohibitions against homosexual acts, but in one famous case seems to accept loving relationships between people of the same gender - the relationship between David and Jonathan (1 Samuel 20) is not condemned.
Christian responses to homosexuality: Homosexuality is understood by some Christians as a challenge to the ideal of marriage and family. Some see it as sin. Some Christians believe it is an abomination before God and maintain that, no matter how good or Christian a person is, if they live a homosexual lifestyle they should be excluded from communion. Conservative US Christians such as Reverend Pat Robertson and Reverend Jerry Falwell stated after the September 11, 2001 bombings in New York that God was punishing the United States for allowing abortion and homosexuality. Radical Christian groups like the Westboro Baptist Church represent extreme hatred.
On the other hand, some Christian congregations accept homosexuality as a natural part of human life and welcome homosexual Christians. This is the case with the Metropolitan Community Church, which has numerous branches in Australia including Petersham, Sydney.
Some ministers and pastors in the Anglican Church and the Uniting Church in Australia are known to be gay or lesbian, while their colleagues are ministers staunchly anti-homosexual. Christian responses to homosexuality are widely varied, ranging from acceptance to disapproval to outright fanatical hatred.
Historical context: History shows that homosexuality has always been a dimension of human sexuality. Some historians debate whether particular words or phrases in one of the earliest texts, the Mesopotamian Epic of Gilgamesh, could be understood sexually and whether Gilgamesh and Enkidu were lovers as well as friends.
Biblical passages condemning homosexuality: In the Old Testament, Leviticus states: "You shall not lie with a male as with a woman; it is an abomination" (Leviticus 18:22). This clearly refers to sexual acts between men. Adding to interpretation difficulty, Leviticus 11:12 treats eating anything from the sea without fins and scales (such as oysters) as equally serious a crime as a man sleeping with a man.
In the New Testament, Paul's letter to the Romans states: "... for this reason, God gave them [the wicked] up to unnatural passions. Their women exchanged natural relations for unnatural and the men, likewise, gave up natural relations with women and were consumed with passion for one another, men committing shameless acts with men and receiving in their own persons the due penalty for their error" (Romans 1:26-27). However, Paul does not make clear what the "shameless acts" or "due penalty" are.
In 1 Corinthians 6:9-10, Paul references "fornicators, idolaters, adulterers, male prostitutes, and sodomites" who will be excluded from God's kingdom. Again the emphasis is on sexual acts. In 1 Timothy 1:10, Paul speaks similarly. There are no explicit references to lesbianism in the Bible.
The story of Sodom and Gomorrah: One famous passage some Christians believe shows God condemns homosexuality is the destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah from Genesis 19. Certainly it says the inhabitants of these towns were wicked, but there is no proof in this text (or in Jewish interpretations) that God destroyed them because homosexuality was practised there. The major theme of this biblical passage seems related to rules of hospitality. The term "sodomy" derives from this particular interpretation of the story.
David and Jonathan: King David's intense love of Jonathan is described in explicit terms: "When he had finished speaking to Saul, the soul of Jonathan was knit to the soul of David and Jonathan loved him as his own soul" (1 Samuel 18:1). In 2 Samuel, David makes a startling confession: "I am distressed for you, my brother Jonathan; very pleasant have you been to me; your love to me was wonderful, exceeding the love of a woman" (2 Samuel 1:26).
Given that King David is one of the great religious heroes of the Bible and blessed by God, this seems to represent an ideal of male-to-male love. It is not directly stated that David and Jonathan had a sexual relationship, but these passages stress that each man deeply loved the other.
Gender roles and discrimination
In some Christian communities, women are regularly kept from leading spiritual roles. In the modern world, Christianity is accused of being patriarchal and needing reform. Feminist theology is a movement aiming to increase equality between gender roles in Christian communities. More traditional societies suggest there are clear teachings assigning women different roles in the community and these rules should be followed.
In an institution as old as Christianity, with heritage going back to Jewish society at least 3000 years old, patriarchal assumptions abound.
The Genesis creation accounts
Genesis contains two creation stories with different implications for gender roles.
Genesis 1:27 shows God making man and woman together; they seem equal and blessed before him.
The second creation story (Genesis 2:18 onwards) shows Adam created first, and Eve created later from one of Adam's ribs. It is Eve who makes Adam eat from the tree of knowledge, causing them both to be expelled from Eden. Eve is thus seen not only as an afterthought by God but also as a temptress and the reason for humanity's fall from paradise.
Male attitudes toward women within the Christian church are framed by this and countless other stories of women as subordinate to men.
Paul's teachings on women
Paul wrote in his first letter to Timothy: "Let a woman learn in silence with all submissiveness. I permit no woman to teach or have authority over men; she is to keep silent" (1 Timothy 2:11).
Paul offers his reason: "For Adam was formed first then Eve; and Adam was not deceived, but woman was and became transgressor. Yet woman will be saved through bearing children, if she continues in faith and love and holiness, with modesty."
There is doubt that this letter to Timothy is really by Paul, but it nevertheless reflects attitudes toward women at the time. A genuine letter by Paul says in 1 Corinthians 14:34: "Let women stay silent in church." This is complicated by his pronouncement in Galatians 3:28: "In baptism there is neither man nor woman."
The paradox in Paul's teaching: On one hand, women must play a passive role in church; on the other, within that church, gender does not matter. Paul offers a confusing message on women's status. This is a confusion that feminist theology movements try to understand. Those opposing women's ordination to ministry often emphasise passages such as 1 Corinthians 14:34, while those supporting women's ordination emphasise passages such as Galatians 3:28.
Other biblical and historical sources
Ecclesiastes states: "And I find more bitter than death the woman, whose heart is snares and nets, and her hands as bands: whoever pleases God shall escape from her; but the sinner shall be taken by her" (Ecclesiastes 7:26).
Thomas Aquinas, one of the most famous doctors of the Catholic Church, wrote: "As regards the individual nature, woman is defective and misbegotten, for the active power of the male seed tends to the production of a perfect likeness in the masculine sex; while the production of a woman comes from defect in the active power."
This quote is based on the medieval idea that women played no active part in procreation but simply acted as an incubator for semen. As knowledge and attitudes change, so does understanding of gender roles.
Feminist theology
Feminist theology is a movement examining religious teachings, particularly within Judaism and Christianity, from a feminist perspective. It questions patriarchal structures of church and society. It emphasises feminine aspects of God and seeks greater roles for women in the Church.
Progress has been made in some denominations. Reverend Libby Lane was consecrated in 2015 as the first female bishop in the Church of England. This was remarkable given that the Church of England had debated and allowed women's ordination as priests since 1994, yet only began consecrating female bishops 21 years later.
Remember!
Key Points to Remember:
- Christian ethics is founded on the principle "You shall be holy" (Leviticus 20:26), drawing from the Ten Commandments, Beatitudes, and Jesus' love commandment
- There is no single Christian position on bioethics - views vary significantly between denominations, particularly between Catholic and Protestant churches
- The Catholic Church opposes abortion and IVF under most circumstances, viewing life as beginning at conception; Protestant churches are generally more accepting in certain situations
- Euthanasia is widely opposed by Christians, though passive euthanasia (withdrawing treatment) is more accepted than active euthanasia; palliative care is promoted as a compassionate alternative
- Environmental ethics involves tension between "dominion" (seen by some as licence to exploit) and "stewardship" (duty of care); ecotheology emphasises reverence for all creation
- The Bible rarely addresses premarital sex directly because people married very young when it was written; application to modern society where marriage occurs much later is challenging
- Biblical passages on homosexuality include Leviticus 18:22 condemning male homosexual acts, and Paul's letters condemning same-sex behaviour, but David and Jonathan's relationship suggests acceptance of same-sex love; Christian responses range from full acceptance to total condemnation
- Genesis contains two creation accounts with different implications for gender equality; Paul's writings present contradictions (women must be silent vs. no male or female in baptism); feminist theology challenges patriarchal structures