Further Significant People and Schools of Thought (HSC SSCE Studies of Religion): Revision Notes

Further Significant People and Schools of Thought

Introduction to significant figures in Hinduism

When studying Hinduism, it is essential to understand how key individuals and philosophical movements have shaped the religion over time. These significant people contributed new interpretations of Hindu texts, challenged existing practices, and influenced how Hinduism is practised today. Their teachings continue to impact millions of Hindus worldwide, including communities in Australia.

This note examines important Hindu scholars, mystics, and reformers who lived between approximately 1000 CE and 1900 CE. Each person made unique contributions to Hindu thought, from philosophical debates about the nature of reality to social reforms that improved people's lives.

Ramanuja (circa 1017-1137 CE)

Background and early life

Ramanuja, also called Ramanujacharya, was born in the village of Perumbudur in Tamil Nadu, South India, around 1017 CE. His birth name was Ilaya Perumal. According to traditional accounts, he lived for an extraordinary 120 years, though some sources suggest different dates (1077-1157 CE). The uncertainty about his dates relates to debates about which Chola King Kulottunga persecuted Vaishnavas and exiled Ramanuja for 12 years.

Ramanuja came from a Brahmin family and was a Vaishnava—a worshipper of Lord Vishnu. His parents were devout Hindus, and from an early age, Ramanuja demonstrated exceptional intelligence. Importantly, he also showed a relaxed attitude toward varna (the caste system), which was unusual for someone from a high-caste Brahmin background.

The incident with Kancipurna

One story illustrates Ramanuja's progressive views on caste. He invited his friend Kancipurna, who came from the lowest varna (Shudra), to dinner. When Ramanuja was delayed, his wife served the guest but afterwards ritually washed herself because she had been in contact with someone from a lower caste. This incident, along with similar examples of his wife's rigid caste attitudes, so angered Ramanuja that he abandoned his marriage and his life as a householder to become a sannyasi (wandering ascetic).

Spiritual development

Ramanuja studied under the teacher Yadavaprakasha, a popular scholar influenced by Shankara's philosophy. While Yadavaprakasha admired Ramanuja's abilities, he became concerned about his student's emphasis on bhakti (devotion). Their relationship deteriorated, and according to some accounts, Yadavaprakasha or his disciples even plotted to kill Ramanuja.

Ramanuja escaped and, on the advice of Kancipurna, sought out the great master Yamunacharya. Legend says that when Ramanuja arrived, Yamunacharya had just died, but three fingers on the corpse were curled. Ramanuja interpreted this as a sign and made three vows:

• To teach the doctrine of surrender to God for achieving moksha (liberation from samsara)
• To write a commentary on the Brahma Sutras
• To perpetuate the names of the sages Parasara and Sathakopa

When he made these vows, the three fingers reportedly straightened, confirming his destiny as Yamunacharya's spiritual successor.

Major contributions to Hindu philosophy

Ramanuja's most significant contribution was developing the concept of vishishta advaita, which translates roughly as "qualified non-dualism" or "almost, but not quite two." This philosophical position developed as a response to Shankara's teaching of advaita (non-dualism or complete oneness).

Ramanuja argued that while souls can experience unity with God, they do not lose their individual identity. The distinction between atman and Brahman remains, even though they can be closely connected.

This difference in philosophy had practical implications for worship. For Ramanuja, devotion (bhakti) became more important than intellectual study alone. If the soul retains its individuality, then a loving devotional relationship with God makes sense. Ritual practice, religious duties, and social responsibilities also gained importance in Ramanuja's teaching.

Written works and activities

Ramanuja wrote nine books, collectively called the Navartanas. These included:

• Commentary on the Brahma Sutras (fulfilling his vow)
• Several philosophical works
• Summaries of Vedanta philosophy
• A guide to daily living for Vaishnavas
• Commentary on the Bhagavad Gita

During his life, Ramanuja travelled extensively as a wandering ascetic. He standardised liturgy (worship practices) at many Lord Vishnu temples. He was considered a threat by the Shaivite Chola kings and was exiled for 12 years to Melukote.

Legacy and death

According to tradition, Ramanuja's body was preserved after his death and is displayed at a temple in Srirangam, Tamil Nadu. The body is covered with wax, sandalwood paste, and saffron, and dressed in his original clothing. Devotees believe that viewing the body provides darshan (a vision of the divine) and that close examination reveals his fingernails beneath the covering.

Ramanuja's emphasis on bhakti (devotion) continues to influence Hinduism today. His commentaries on the Brahma Sutras remain important scholarly works. His teaching that surrender to God leads to moksha remains a central concept in devotional Hinduism.

Madhva (circa 1199-1278 CE)

Early life and education

Sri Madhvacharya, known as Madhva, was the third major Vedanta philosopher after Shankara and Ramanuja. He was born near Udupi in South India around 1199 CE, though dates vary in different sources. His birth name was Vasudeva, and he came from a Brahmin family.

As a child, Madhva demonstrated remarkable abilities. He could successfully argue against adult scholars and excelled at physical activities and sports. His athletic prowess earned him the nickname "Bhima" after the strong hero of the Mahabharata—a connection that would later take on religious significance.

At either age 11 or 25 (sources differ), Madhva sought initiation as a sannyasi (monastic Hindu). He was appointed head of a Vedanta school and given the name Ananda-tirtha. The name "Madhva" came later when he claimed that Vedic texts prophesied about him.

Development of dvaita philosophy

Madhva developed the concept of tattvavada or dvaita, meaning "dualism" or "the realist viewpoint." This philosophy opposed both Shankara's advaita (complete oneness) and Ramanuja's vishishta advaita (qualified monism).

For Madhva, Brahman was Lord Vishnu, who is supreme and should not be compromised by any notion of identification with atman.

The importance of experience

Madhva emphasised that everyday experience should guide how we interpret sacred texts. The Vedas, he argued, cannot teach that atman and Brahman are identical because this contradicts what we actually experience in life. We experience ourselves as separate beings, distinct from God and from each other. This perception of difference is real, not an illusion.

This philosophical position validated the importance of devotional practice. If God and the individual are truly separate, then worship, prayer, and devotion make perfect sense as ways of relating to the divine.

Travels and miraculous events

Madhva travelled extensively throughout India. He wrote commentaries on the Bhagavad Gita, the Brahma Sutras, and the Upanishads. He also wrote books on singing and the Rig Veda.

During one journey back to Udupi, Madhva reportedly unearthed the mace of Bhima (the Mahabharata hero) and reburied it. This event led believers to see him as a reincarnation of Bhima, connecting back to his childhood nickname.

Around age 79 in 1278 CE, Madhva travelled north to Badri and was never seen again.

Impact on Hindu thought

Madhva's ideas sparked extensive debate and commentary. His disciples wrote numerous books developing his philosophy further. The doctrine of tattvavada (dvaita) significantly influenced the Bhakti devotional movement, which used his writings for centuries.

His theology taught that all avatars of Lord Vishnu are equal and identical, contrasting with teachers who considered Krishna the highest form of Vishnu. He founded eight monasteries that have expanded to 24 today. These institutions follow Madhva's teachings and provide food to pilgrims and the poor.

Madhva's dvaita Vedanta is recognised as one of three major schools of Vedanta philosophy. Later scholars like Jayatirtha (14th century) and Vyasaraya (16th century) developed his ideas further. His emphasis on devotion, particularly to Lord Vishnu, continues to influence modern Hinduism.

Mirabai (Mira Bai; circa 1498-1547 CE)

Background and devotion to Krishna

Mira Bai lived in India from approximately 1498 to 1547 CE (though some suggest dates 50 years later). She was born in the village of Kudki in Rajasthan, into a family devoted to Lord Vishnu, making her a Vaishnava Hindu. From childhood, Mira Bai developed an intense devotion to Krishna (one of Vishnu's avatars), spending hours washing and dressing Krishna's image.

After her mother's early death, Mira Bai was raised by her grandparents while her father served as a soldier. When asked as a child whom she would marry, she reportedly pointed to a statue of Krishna and declared, "There he is!"

Marriage and conflict

At age 18, Mira Bai was arranged to marry Prince Bhorjral (or Rana Kumbha). However, she refused to perform puja (worship) to her husband's family deity, Durga (a goddess linked to Shiva). She also refused to consummate the marriage, remaining devoted only to Krishna.

Life as a devotee

Mira Bai preferred spending time with holy men, gurus, and Krishna devotees rather than with her husband's family. One story describes a wandering ascetic who had to return and leave a Krishna statue at her house so she would resume eating and drinking after a period of extreme fasting.

Many dramatic stories tell of false accusations against Mira Bai and plots to remove her, as well as accounts of her ecstatic devotion. After her father's death around 1530 CE, she began a wandering life, eventually returning to worship at a temple in Chaterbhuj, which remains associated with her today.

She travelled to Dwarka (now in Gujarat) on the Arabian Sea coast, where Krishna supposedly spent the end of his earthly life. According to tradition, Mira Bai did not die but in 1547 CE merged completely with a Krishna statue, disappearing into it and leaving only her sari wrapped around it.

Literary contributions

Mira Bai was a talented musician, hymnist, and prolific composer of poetry and hymns. She became recognised as one of the great poet-composers of Hinduism. Her devotional works, known as bhajan and kirtan (devotional hymns and poetry used in worship), attracted many listeners.

Her poetry expressed intense devotion and passion. She frequently referred to Krishna as "my dark lord," a phrase that appears throughout her works. Here are two examples that show her emotional intensity:

"I am crazy with pain, And no one understands it. Only the wounded knows the pain of the wounded. Saving the fire in his heart. Only the jeweller knows the values of the gem, not the one who lost it. O Lord, Mira's pain will only go when my dark Lord is the healer."

"Hurry to my bed, covered in fresh flowers; my body smells so sweet, ready for you. I am your slave, spending life after life, making love with you only – Mira's love-lord who never dies. 'My dark Lord! Give me just one glimpse' This is all she prays."

Significance for the Bhakti movement

Mira Bai made an outstanding contribution to the Bhakti devotional movement. She overcame the traditional constraints placed on Hindu wives to pursue her spiritual goals. Her poetry and hymns became a significant part of bhakti literature available to Shaivite, Vaishnavite, and Bhakti devotees.

Mira Bai is considered the perfect devotee and an example to follow. Her fierce determination to worship Krishna despite gossip, ridicule, and obstacles provides inspiration for all devotees. She is seen as someone who taught the world how to love God. Despite opposition and persecution, she persisted in her devotion to Krishna and her need for freedom to worship.

Her writings, poems, and hymns remain popular in Hinduism today, and she is seen as an example of someone who stood firm in devotion despite immense pressure to conform.

Ram Mohan Roy (1774-1833 CE)

Early life and education

Ram Mohan Roy was born in Radhanagore, Bengal, in 1774 (though his exact birth date is disputed). His family background was unusual for the time—his father was a Vaishnavite and his mother a Shaivite, considered an unsuitable "mixed marriage" in that era.

Roy studied several languages at the local village school before going to Benares to learn Hindu scriptures and Sanskrit. His mother encouraged this study because he had been learning Arabic and reading the Qur'an. At Benares, however, he began studying Buddhism. At one point, he went missing and was found with local Buddhists before his family brought him back to manage family property, where he stayed until 1795.

Work as a pandit

From 1795, Roy worked as a pandit for Christian missionaries. A pandit is a scholar expert in Indian law, Sanskrit, religion, and philosophy. The British employed pandits to explain Indian life, religion, and culture. Roy also published journals in several languages.

Roy met the Christian missionary William Carey, considered the founder of the modern missionary movement. Carey wanted to convert Indians to Christianity and believed pandits could help. Through Carey, Roy met the Sanskrit scholar Vidyabagish. Together, the three men created The Book of Great Liberation, a syncretistic work relating the Christian Holy Spirit to the Hindu concept of Brahman. This text was influential in early colonial India before becoming viewed with suspicion, particularly by the English, who saw it as a judicial rather than religious text.

Career changes and social activism

Roy moved to Calcutta, became a moneylender to poor British clients, and learned Greek and Latin. In 1803, he became a writer for the East India Company but resigned in 1815 after corruption allegations. He reunited with William Carey and gradually began denouncing most religions he had adopted.

Roy especially attacked his own Brahmin varna in Bengal and their practices. He campaigned against:

• Sati (widow self-immolation)
• Polygamy
• Child marriage
• Dowries
• Idolatry

The Brahmo Samaj and social reform

Roy's religious views became less important as his concern for social reform grew, though he saw these as interconnected. He worked toward social reforms that would help shape a modern India.

Roy believed education was key to achieving social reform. He established several colleges and introduced Western education into Indian schooling. He is considered an important figure in the Bengal Renaissance.

Religious philosophy

Roy was essentially a monotheist, which explains his interest in Islam, Christianity, and syncretistic beliefs. He wanted to eliminate idolatry and rituals he considered meaningless from India. His family was not supportive—his mother launched several lawsuits accusing him of apostasy (abandoning his religion). Much of this appeared motivated by a desire to prevent him from inheriting family property, though Roy had become independently wealthy by this time.

His belief in "one supreme God" (Brahman) influenced the development of a monotheistic form of Hinduism. He also influenced personal expressions of Hinduism, with less emphasis on ritual and liturgical practices.

Journey to England and death

In 1831, Ram Mohan Roy travelled to England to support the abolition of sati. He died of meningitis in England on 27 September 1833 and is buried there.

Legacy

Ram Mohan Roy has been called "the maker of modern India," largely due to his concern about Indian social issues. While he was a noted scholar, his writings attacked many practices and traditions that had developed in India. He is remembered for his advocacy on behalf of the oppressed.

Ramakrishna (1836-1886 CE)

Early life and temple service

Sri Ramakrishna Paramahamsa was born Gadadhar Chattopadhyay on 18 February 1836 in Kamatpukur village, West Bengal, near Calcutta. He was named Gadadhar because his father had a vision that Lord Vishnu, disguised as the god Gadadhara, would be born into his family. His poor but devout Brahmin family raised him with strong religious values.

Gadadhar loved nature and showed early interest in religious matters. He was popular but demonstrated little interest in formal schooling. Throughout his life, he remained either illiterate or semi-literate. He listened to travelling monks and sannyasis debate spiritual matters as he grew up.

As his family became poorer, Gadadhar had an opportunity to serve in a temple to Kali founded by Rani Rashmoni, a wealthy woman from Calcutta. He first assisted his brother Ramkumar in decorating the murti (image) of Kali, then became the temple priest.

Spiritual experiences

As priest, Ramakrishna (as he became known) began questioning whether the murti was merely stone or a living goddess. He experienced strong emotional reactions to the murti. On one occasion, he attempted suicide but stopped when he had a vision of waves of light emanating from the statue. He desperately sought more spiritual experiences and became famous as a devout man.

Ramakrishna allegedly took on the form of Hanuman, the monkey king, when performing bhakti, supposedly growing a tail and living on fruits and nuts. He also practised madhurabhava, dressing as a woman and imitating female behaviour to embody the goddess Radha's feelings for Krishna. This led to a vision where his body merged with Krishna's—an expression of bhakti devotion.

Marriage to Sarada Devi

Ramakrishna's family feared his spiritual experiences were driving him mad, so they persuaded him to marry. He agreed and indicated he wanted to marry a girl named Sarada from a nearby village. Ramakrishna was 23; Sarada was only five. Because of his belief in celibacy, the marriage was never consummated, and they initially lived apart.

In 1861, a female guru named Yogeshwari visited Ramakrishna and taught him 64 tantric sadhanas (spiritual practices). When Sarada was 16, she heard about Ramakrishna's unusual practices and travelled to the temple to protect him from Yogeshwari.

Sarada became Ramakrishna's first disciple. She was recognised as Sarada Devi (Saradadevi) and worshipped by Ramakrishna as "the divine mother." They lived together as husband and wife but never consummated their marriage due to Ramakrishna's ascetic practices.

Exploration of other religions

Ramakrishna developed an interest in Islam and Christianity. He believed he had merged with both Muhammad and Jesus. He taught that all religions are paths to the one God.

By 1870, Ramakrishna had established his reputation as a mystic, attracting a large following of disciples, especially from Bengali middle classes. Many prominent people from Calcutta visited him, further enhancing his reputation.

Teachings about women

Ramakrishna taught that the cause of bondage in human life is "women and gold." This phrase has various interpretations. He appears to have had issues with women, particularly as sexual beings. Some suggest he was simply an ascetic avoiding women for spiritual devotion. Others propose he had a pathological fear of women, possibly from psychological damage suffered in an abusive childhood (though this is speculation). This may explain why he worshipped his wife Sarada Devi as a deity—viewing her this way meant he did not have to see her as a sexual being.

Death and legacy

In 1885, Ramakrishna developed throat cancer. His health deteriorated, and he died on 16 August 1886. He left a devoted group of disciples committed to continuing his work, most significantly Swami Vivekananda, who became known as the man who introduced Hinduism to the West.

Key teachings

Important concepts from Ramakrishna's teachings include:

• Oneness of existence: All reality is fundamentally one
• Unity of God: Despite different names and forms, God is one
• Equality of religions: All religions lead to the same goal despite their differences
• Harmony of religions: God reveals himself in all places and times, not just to select groups
• Presence of God in images: He strongly affirmed that gods are truly present in their murti (images)

While named after two avatars of Lord Vishnu (Rama and Krishna), Ramakrishna was a Shaivite who revered Shiva as the Supreme Being. He also worshipped Krishna and Kali (Shiva's consort), believing "wherever there is a human being, there is Shiva."

Impact on Hinduism

Ramakrishna revitalised and renewed Hinduism for his times. He challenged ritualism and superstition in Hinduism, helping it meet challenges from Islam, Christianity, modern science, and secularism. He provided indirect support to Indian nationalism.

Among those strongly influenced by Ramakrishna were:

• Aldous Huxley
• Leo Tolstoy
• Mohandas Gandhi
• His disciple Vivekananda

Swami Vivekananda (1863-1902 CE)

Early life and education

Swami Vivekananda was born Narendranath Datta in Calcutta during the Makar Sankranti festival in 1863. His well-educated traditional family provided a strong foundation. From an early age, Narendranath was interested in spirituality, meditating before images of several gods and showing interest in wandering monks and ascetics.

At school, he was an avid reader, including Hindu sacred texts. He graduated with a Bachelor of Arts in 1884 and studied Sanskrit scriptures and Bengali literature. Narendranath was considered a prodigy—a very talented scholar with exceptional memory.

In 1880, he came under various influences, joining a group called Nava Vidhan that worshipped God as mother. He also joined other religious and social groups like the Freemasons and the Band of Hope (which discouraged young people from using alcohol and drugs). He was influenced by Western esoteric religious thought and philosophy.

Meeting with Ramakrishna

Narendranath met Ramakrishna in 1881 and was invited to visit Dakshineswar. Initially, he was not impressed. However, when his father died in 1884 and the family went bankrupt, he gradually accepted Ramakrishna as his guru and became a renunciate.

Development as a spiritual leader

When Ramakrishna developed throat cancer, Narendranath joined his monastic order over the following two years. Ramakrishna appointed him leader of the order before his death in 1886.

The Ramakrishna Math (monastery) was established at Baranagar, where devotees practised yoga and other Hindu disciplines. Narendranath took the name Swami Vivekananda in 1887. Over the next five years, he travelled through India as a sannyasi, teaching and learning.

The Parliament of World Religions

In 1893, Vivekananda travelled to the USA to attend the Parliament of World Religions in Chicago. After initial difficulties (he had no official credentials), he was invited to attend and gave a brief speech as a representative of India and Hinduism. He attracted significant attention and impressed many with his oratory skills, becoming one of the better-known figures at the Parliament. He was then invited to tour America and the United Kingdom.

Spreading Vedanta in the West

Vivekananda began establishing Vedanta Centres across the USA and other Western countries. He published the book Raja Yoga, which marked the beginning of modern Western yoga. He converted and initiated several Americans and established:

• The Shanti Asrama in the Californian mountains
• Vedanta Press (a publishing company)

Return to India and social activism

Vivekananda returned to India in 1897, where he affirmed India's rich spiritual heritage and Hinduism while challenging:

• The caste system
• Poverty
• British rule

He founded the Ramakrishna Mission in 1897 to promote social services in India. He also established other monasteries.

Philosophical contributions

Vivekananda promoted Shankara's Advaita Vedanta philosophy. He linked:

• Moral behaviour with the mind
• Holiness and purity with unselfishness and faith
• Success with focused thought and action

His numerous written works were drawn largely from his speeches. Raja Yoga was his most influential book. Vivekananda also influenced Indian society both during his lifetime and in subsequent years.

Impact on Hinduism

Vivekananda can be credited with:

• Reviving Vedanta philosophy
• Linking Vedanta ideas with growing Western spirituality in esoteric traditions like Theosophy and Transcendentalism
• Establishing acceptance of Hinduism as a religious tradition in the West

He influenced numerous Hindu and non-Hindu figures, including:

• Mohandas Gandhi
• Current Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi
• Indonesia's first president, Sukarno
• US President Barack Obama (who quoted him in a 2010 speech)

Schools of thought in Hinduism

The Bhakti movement

Origins and development

The Bhakti movement refers to the devotional trend in Hinduism that focused on worshipping particular gods and goddesses. It probably emerged from South India and spread north. The movement peaked from approximately 800 CE to 1700 CE and continues as an important variant of Hinduism today.

The term "bhakti" derives from the Sanskrit word bhaj, meaning "devotion or intense attachment to God." It is often called the Bhakti devotional movement.

This movement's focus on particular gods and goddesses transcends the ritual liturgies and formal worship led by Brahmin priests. Instead, it emphasises personal devotion expressed through prayer, sacrifice, and personal commitment. It transcends concepts of varna (caste) and gender, focusing on individual expressions of love and devotion.

Scriptural basis

Suggestions of bhakti appear in the Vedas, especially the Upanishads, but the concept of devotion is most fully developed in the Epics. The Mahabharata and Ramayana explain the nature of ultimate reality and the relationship between the devotee and that Reality—through loyalty and devotion, such as a brother's devotion to a brother or a wife to her husband. This becomes explicit in the Bhagavad Gita, in the dialogue between Krishna and Arjuna, especially in verses 9:26 and 18:65.

Bhakti focuses on particular individual deities, making Epic (smrti) texts more significant than Vedic texts. Works like the Ramayana (stories of Rama and Sita), the Bhagavad Gita (stories of Krishna), and various Puranas (stories of the gods) became central. These stories of individual gods and goddesses offer the ability to develop the personal connection and devotion that forms the basis of the Bhakti movement.

Growth and spread

The Bhakti movement grew rapidly during the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, gradually spreading north, particularly during Muslim colonisation (from the twelfth century). Poetry and ideas came from those worshipping Shiva (nayanars) and Lord Vishnu (alvars), who would sing praises to their gods as they travelled.

Beginning with Tamil origins, numerous Tamil texts became popular, such as the Tirumurai. Several significant groups and people are associated with the Bhakti movement:

• Madhva's teachings were supported and spread by the movement
• Mira Bai is a noted devotee and proponent of bhakti
• The modern Hare Krishna movement expresses bhakti

One feature of the movement was using vernacular (local) languages rather than Sanskrit. In the south, bhakti devotion used Dravidian languages like Kannada and Tamil to develop its literature. Here, devotion focused on Shiva and Lord Vishnu. In the north, it tended to emphasise Lord Vishnu's avatars, especially Rama and Krishna. Generally, different Bhakti groups coexisted peacefully, though some examples of hostility exist.

Core teachings and practices

The Bhakti movement stressed several aspects of Hinduism:

• Monotheism: Encouraging devotion to just one major deity considered the greatest incarnation of Brahman, usually Lord Vishnu or Shiva, or related gods/goddesses like Rama, Krishna, Devi, Kali, Ganesha, or Murugan
• Loving devotional response: Moving from formal ritual to expressions of loving devotion (which may still be expressed through ritual)
• Accessibility: Anyone could worship God with devotion, so the concept of varna (caste) was diminished
• Simple devotion over intellectual study: Rather than studying philosophy and theology, simple devotion became more important
• Rejection of Brahminic ritual: The movement disregarded Brahminic rituals considered unnecessary in favour of local devotional rituals

Practices include:

• Chanting the devotee's chosen deity's name
• Reading devotional literature
• Temple worship
• Singing hymns
• Dancing

These activities can be ecstatic and involve women who serve in temples as "slaves of the gods."

For some Hindus, however, the Bhakti movement lessened ritual's value, while for others, formal puja was enhanced by personal devotion.

Significant figures

Important people associated with the Bhakti movement include:

Ramananda (fifteenth century): A disciple of Ramanuja who taught that Rama was the supreme Lord. He developed his teachings using local languages instead of Sanskrit. Chanting Rama's name was his way of devotion.

Madhva: Taught that Lord Vishnu was God and developed his idea of dvaita (dualism), acknowledging the difference between atman and Brahman.

Impact on Hinduism

With the Bhakti movement's growth came renewed enthusiasm for worship and devotion to God. Older traditional schools like Vedanta and Shaiva Siddhanta continued to flourish alongside the Bhakti movement. The movement contributed significantly to:

• Songs, music, and poetry that enriched Hindu scripture
• Indian literature generally

Purva Mimamsa

Nature and origins

Purva Mimamsa is an orthodox school of Hindu philosophy that developed as a form of enquiry into the nature of dharma (duty, the right way of living). "Purva Mimamsa" means "prior investigation," compared with "Uttara Mimamsa" ("later or higher investigation"), better known as Vedanta.

The ideas of purva and uttara primarily reference different parts of the Veda rather than chronological priority. Both schools developed in the last few centuries BCE. Purva Mimamsa focuses on the Vedas' earlier part, while Vedanta focuses on the Upanishads.

Key principles

Purva Mimamsa emphasises studying dharma by close examination and analysis of Vedic sections containing mantras and describing ritual procedures. It seeks to:

• Promote study and ritual
• Avoid asceticism and mysticism
• Pursue intellectual enquiry
• Study language (philology) and the philosophy of language
• Preserve ritual

Historical development

Purva Mimamsa developed as a reaction to:

• The growing Vedanta school and its mysticism
• Anti-ritualists
• The development of Buddhism and its asceticism

It grew in popularity through the first millennium CE and became a dominant expression of Hinduism. Today, however, Vedanta has grown more dominant and has overshadowed Purva Mimamsa in recent years.

Major texts and teachers

One of the most influential teachers in Purva Mimamsa was Jaimini, believed to have lived around the second century BCE. He wrote a text known as the Mimamsa Sutra, containing 12 chapters divided into 2500 aphorisms (memorable statements) that are difficult to understand.

Jaimini accepted that the "word" (the Vedas) is the only source of knowledge. The Vedas, according to Jaimini, are "self-revealed"—intrinsically valid and known to be true. Many commentaries were written on this text, though most have been lost over time.

Core teachings

According to Purva Mimamsa, dharma can be translated as "duty, morality or virtue." It relates to:

• Correct performance of Vedic rituals
• Performance of right actions (karma)

The emphasis on the Vedas as primary sources has led to Purva Mimamsa being seen as almost atheistic (where text becomes more important than gods), although it is generally theistic. No other scriptures are accepted, and belief is secondary to practices and the intellectual approach of its method. Purva Mimamsa also emphasises jnana yoga—the quest for and discipline of knowledge.

Purva Mimamsa is dualistic, accepting the reality of:

• The individual soul (atman)
• Brahman (the great world soul, essentially "the God"), but only as revealed through the Vedas

Atman is essentially equivalent to "consciousness." The school also accepts:

• The reality of the world (reality of objects)
• The concept of karma
• The need for moksha—the cessation of samsara's cycle

Moksha can be achieved by:

• Observing regular daily duties (nitya karmas)
• Observing duties related to special occasions (naimittika karmas)

Impact on Hinduism

The main effect of the Purva Mimamsa school was to:

• Establish the Vedas as Hinduism's primary texts
• Affirm their legitimacy and eternal origins

Vedanta

Origins and meaning

Vedanta started as the alternative school to Purva Mimamsa, known as Uttara Mimamsa. It probably began around the second century BCE. The major difference in early emphasis is that while Purva Mimamsa focuses on the Vedas' first part, Uttara Mimamsa focuses on the end or latter section of the Vedas—the Upanishads.

"Vedanta" means "the end of the Veda." Its primary reference is to the Vedic texts' structure, where the Upanishads come at the end. It has taken a secondary meaning to some—referring to the "end" of, or ultimate, knowledge.

Core teachings

Vedanta emphasises:

• Attaining self-realisation
• Understanding and identification with Brahman (ultimate reality)
• Transcending the self to discover and actualise unity with Brahman

Key principles include:

• Brahman is absolute: Incarnations of God are manifestations of the one divine
• Karma governs human destiny: Human destiny is governed by laws of cause and effect
• Multiple paths to Brahman: Many ways exist to achieve union with Brahman
• Union with Brahman is the ultimate aim: This is the goal for all beings

Achieving this requires:

• Self-discipline
• Effort (including yoga practice)
• Good karma
• Meditation
• Making connection with God

Rather than just "knowing" more about God, Vedanta requires practices that help achieve connection. Rituals are only useful if they help achieve that goal.

Major texts

The three major texts of Vedanta, together called the Triple Canon of Vedanta (Prasthana Traya), are:

1. The Upanishads
2. The Brahma Sutra
3. The Bhagavad Gita

The earliest text for Vedanta is the Vedanta Sutra, most commonly known as the Brahma Sutra, written by Badarayana around the fifth century CE (though the date is tentative).

Different schools within Vedanta

The writings of the Vedanta school are philosophical works that can be interpreted differently, creating a variety of schools. Each emphasises different elements while recognising the Upanishads' importance, which themselves are open to various interpretations.

Modern Vedanta

The most prominent modern school of Vedanta was promoted by Swami Vivekananda (who founded the Ramakrishna Mission), disciple of Ramakrishna. Vivekananda stressed a form of advaita that recognised both personal and absolute reality, the removal of poverty, and a concept of universalism. He saw a significant place for bhakti, focusing on a particular form before realising ultimate reality.

Core philosophy

Vedanta's main focus is on achieving unification with Brahman, primarily achieved by:

• Doing good
• Developing good karma
• Accepting that life is illusory
• Understanding that ultimate reality is that atman seeks reunification

Seeking fulfilment in material things is chasing an illusion. Truth is universal, so the differences people experience are part of this world's illusion. Fear and the competitive nature of different religions are nothing to be concerned about—people should seek the ultimate, eternal reality.

Impact on Hinduism

Vedanta is a strong and influential school in today's Hinduism, probably the dominant school in modern Hinduism. Key ideas expressed in modern Hindu thought can be seen to have developed from Vedanta.

Shaiva Siddhanta

Overview and significance

Shaiva Siddhanta is one of the oldest schools of Hinduism but remains active. It is especially prevalent among Australian Hindus, particularly those of Tamil background. Shaiva Siddhanta has millions of devotees, and its main focus is worshipping Shiva. It is evident in many Hindu places of worship where Shiva is emphasised as the primary deity.

Basic theology

Basic Shaiva Siddhanta theology involves three categories (pati-pasu-pasa):

• Pati: The lord (Shiva)—"the master of the herd"
• Pasu: The souls in a cycle of rebirth—"the cattle of the herd"
• Pasa: The bond, the material influences that keep the cycle of samsara going—"the tether"

Historical development

The first known Shaiva Siddhanta teacher may have been Maharishi Nandinatha of Kashmir, who lived around 250 BCE. Only 26 Sanskrit verses survive of his writings, and he seemed monistic in his approach. Most scholars, however, would date its beginnings much later.

The scholar Rishi Tirumular (who lived about the tenth century CE) wrote a Tamil version of the teachings of 28 Shaiva teachers. His work, called the Tirumantiram (sacred incantation), was very influential and is still read today. It is the 10th text in the 12-volume work known as the Tirumurai, the sacred text of Tamil Shaivism.

Shaiva Siddhanta grew in South India as a form of the Bhakti movement. It spread into central and then northern India, mainly through monastic Hindus who opened monasteries and spread teachings with missionary zeal. It was enthusiastically received and grew until Islam's arrival pushed Shaiva Siddhanta back to the south.

Core teachings and practices

Shaiva Siddhanta promotes a form of monotheism where Shiva is presented as the divine, worshipped above all other gods. Shiva is:

• Immanent and transcendent
• Both creator of the world and the one who absorbs creation
• Both cause and effect in the world

The way to achieve liberation is through a combination of:

• Moral, virtuous living
• Individual and temple worship
• Yoga
• Developing knowledge

Important teachers

Aghorasiva (twelfth century CE) sought to combine several strands of Shaiva Siddhanta. He preserved Sanskrit rituals that continue today.

Meykander (thirteenth century) stressed that Shiva was not the material cause of the world, souls, or God—a further development in the school's theology.

Impact on Hinduism

Today, Shaiva Siddhanta is a strong representation of Hinduism throughout the world. It is popular in:

• Australia
• Other Western countries
• South India
• Sri Lanka

Balinese Hinduism

Background and context

One of the most familiar forms of Hinduism to many Australians is Balinese Hinduism, practised on the Indonesian island of Bali. Bali is a popular destination for Australian tourists, who encounter its expression daily on the island. Its ceremonies, dances, and rituals are freely available for tourists to see or participate in.

The Indonesian archipelago was Hindu until Islam's expansion around the thirteenth century. While most of Indonesia converted to Islam, Bali remained (and continues to remain) essentially Hindu. The Hinduism expressed on the island incorporates elements of Buddhism and many animistic elements to create a very different but recognisable form of Hinduism.

About 93 per cent of Balinese are Hindu, and the belief system is deeply intertwined with daily life in Bali.

Syncretic nature

Balinese Hinduism is a blend of:

• Mythology
• Theology
• Animism
• Magic
• Ancestor worship

Hindu elements

Balinese Hinduism retains many significant factors identifiable as Hindu:

• Worship of the three main Hindu gods: Brahma, Lord Vishnu, and Shiva
• Their supreme deity is named Sanghyang Widhi Wasa rather than the concept of Brahman
• Retention of a caste system
• Temple and home puja
• Practice of cremation (often a tourist attraction)
• Sanskrit use by priests in liturgical chants

Emphasis on devotion and ritual

As part of their faith, Balinese Hindus perfect the art of self-control to guard against spirit possession, so Balinese are often highly regarded for their gracefulness. In contrast, trance dances, where possession is invited, are wild and exuberant.

Dances reflect Hinduism's stories, such as the Ramayana, but are influenced by understanding the power of local animistic spirits. The Ramayana is particularly popular, with great emphasis on Hanuman (the monkey king)'s role.

Balinese Hinduism places emphasis on:

• Knowledge of Hindu Epics, often adapted to Balinese tastes
• Hindu theology and philosophy, especially for the pendeta (educated priests equivalent to Brahmins)

Worship practices

The primary worship of Shiva (called Siwa), often depicted as the sun, suggests a Shaiva variant predominates, although considerable emphasis is given to Krishna and Lord Vishnu's avatars.

Balinese Hinduism is sometimes called Agama Tirtha (religion of the holy water) because of the emphasis on water, which is so much a part of daily life for the Balinese with their agricultural economy, particularly in elaborate cleansing and rice-growing rituals.

Worship is extremely significant in Bali:

• Daily offerings placed in home shrines
• Frequent temple visits
• Religious festivals central to life

Whole villages will stop to prepare and participate in festivals.

Rituals and ceremonies

Significant rituals in Balinese Hindu life, most associated with cleansing using water, fire, and ash:

• At death, fire (cremation) purifies a soul, and ashes are placed in the sea or river
• Some rituals must be held on specific dates
• Others are for community celebrations and rites of passage, such as tooth filing and cockfights

One significant festival is Nyepi Day (Balinese New Year), a day of silence and specific ritual. Numerous public festivals are held, and the religious aspect is an essential part of most Balinese lives. Even cremation becomes a celebration where all present are invited to share the festival.

Balinese Hinduism retains interesting practices such as:

• Tooth filing as an adolescent rite of passage
• Elaborate dances and drama for telling sacred stories
• Elaborate ceremonies associated with birth, such as acknowledging the "four companions" present at birth

Hindu Epics are celebrated in Balinese dance, drama, and Wayang Kulit (shadow puppet) plays. Tourists often see elaborate processions down Balinese streets as frequent rituals are performed. The emphasis on worship and ritual as an important part of daily life has coined an expression often given to Bali: "the island of the gods."

Impact on Hinduism

Balinese Hinduism is a particular local adaptation of traditional Hinduism, both recognisable and distinct. It is integrated into most Balinese people's lives and impacts virtually every waking moment through daily rituals and community festivals.

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