Significant Practices in the Lives of Adherents (HSC SSCE Studies of Religion): Revision Notes

Significant Practices in the Lives of Adherents

Introduction

Hinduism expresses faith through various rites and rituals. For the HSC exam, students study one of three significant practices:

• Marriage - a rite of passage with unique Hindu features
• Pilgrimage - encouraged at least once yearly, with many significant sites
• Puja (temple worship) - building on home worship practices

These practices combine personal devotion with public expressions of faith, marking important stages in a Hindu's spiritual journey.

Marriage

Understanding Hindu marriage beliefs

Marriage holds profound spiritual significance in Hindu tradition. It represents far more than a social contract between two people.

Connection to life stages

Marriage marks entry into grihastha, the householder stage of the ashramas (four stages of life). This transition is both spiritual and physical. Hinduism recognises approximately 16 important life events called samskara, with marriage being the 13th samskara.

Purpose and significance

Hindu tradition views marriage as essential for several reasons:

• Provides a sanctioned institution for expressing sexual relations
• Creates the framework for fulfilling social responsibilities of family life
• Enables completion of religious duties
• Single life is considered incomplete; an adult is regarded as not fully realised unless married

However, some individuals may eventually move beyond marriage to the stage of renunciation (sannyasa).

Divine precedent

Hindu gods themselves marry, providing divine models for human relationships. Examples include Shiva and Parvati, and Lord Vishnu and Lakshmi. This divine precedent reinforces marriage as a sacred institution.

The marriage ceremony in practice

Hindu weddings are elaborate affairs filled with highly symbolised rituals. While variations exist between regions and communities, certain core elements remain consistent.

Pre-wedding preparations

Before the main ceremony, several important rituals take place:

• Welcome ceremony - The groom and his family are welcomed to the bride's home
• Henna decoration - The bride's hands and feet are decorated with intricate henna (mahendi) patterns
• Ritual bathing - Both bride and groom perform ablutions (ritual washing)
• Special preparation - The bride wears a red sari and jewellery, and applies special makeup made from ghee, camphor, herbs and lamp black

Traditional arrangements

Traditionally, Hindu marriages are arranged by parents in consultation with priests and astrologers. Partners are chosen or confirmed through astrological charts. The wedding date itself is carefully selected according to astrological calculations to find the most auspicious time.

The ceremony location and setup

The ceremony may be held at:

• The bride's home (traditional)
• A temple
• A hired hall (common in Australia)

A mandapa (decorated canopy) or flower-decorated stand containing a sacred fire is central to the ceremony.

Opening rituals

At the ceremony's beginning:

• The god Ganesha is worshipped (particularly by Shaiva followers) as the remover of obstacles and bringer of good fortune
• Vaishnavas may pray to Ganesha or other deities of good fortune
• The couple may stand on a wooden plank, separated by a curtain
• Rice and grains are thrown over the couple
• When the curtain is removed, the wedding officially begins

Core ceremony elements

A Brahmin priest conducts the ceremony before the sacred fire (representing Agni). Key ritual actions include:

1. Blessings and offerings

   • Priest says blessings over the couple
   • Garlands (usually sandalwood) are placed around both necks
   • Bride offers yoghurt and honey to groom, symbolising purity and sweetness

2. Status acknowledgment

   • Bride spreads turmeric on groom's feet, showing acceptance of her changed status
   • Father of bride pours water, symbolising Kanyadan (giving his daughter away)

3. Vedic recitations and promises

   • Groom recites hymns from the Vedas, especially those recognising Kama (god of love)
   • Groom promises to assist his wife in achieving the purusharthas (goals of man):
     • Dharma (right conduct)
     • Artha (prosperity)
     • Kama (pleasure)

4. Sacred union symbols

   • Bridegroom's shirt is tied to bride's sari in a knot, symbolising the sacred union
   • Garlands of flowers and rings are exchanged
   • Sacred fire is worshipped with offerings of samagree (crushed sandalwood, herbs, sugar, rice, ghee and twigs)

5. Goddess invocation

   • Groom calls on goddess Saraswati to bless the marriage
   • Bride offers food sacrifice to the fire
   • Bride applies sandalwood paste to groom's forehead
   • Groom makes a red mark on bride's forehead or places red powder in her hair (to be displayed throughout marriage)

6. Circumambulation

   • Groom takes bride's hand
   • They walk around the sacred fire three times
   • Vedic hymns are chanted
   • Offerings of puffed rice and ghee are thrown into fire
   • At each circuit's end, couple steps on a sacred stone, symbolising marriage strength
   • Mantras accept responsibilities of faithfulness, love, respect and promise of children

The seven steps (Satpta padi)

The seven steps (Satpta padi) and their meanings:

1. To nourish each other
2. To grow together in strength
3. To preserve wealth
4. To share joys and sorrows
5. To have and care for children
6. To be together forever
7. The couple are now married and lifelong friends

After completing the seven steps, the groom touches the bride's heart, acknowledging they are joined. This is symbolised by the groom tying a thread containing marks of Lord Vishnu or Shiva (depending on the variant) around the bride's neck.

Concluding customs

Various customs may follow:

• Gifts from groom's parents to bride (cloth, flowers, garlands, gold and silver necklaces with black beads)
• Flowers thrown over the couple
• Cotton tied around the couple
• Bride's hands washed
• Sacred flame carried to groom's house
• Games played
• Special astrological rituals performed

Hindu weddings can last several days, reflecting their importance to the community.

Significance for the individual

Spiritual dimensions

Hindu sacred writings emphasise marriage permanence. The Manusmrti instructs women to love and obey their husbands. Since a wife is considered a divine gift to the husband, he should always support a faithful wife, thereby pleasing the gods.

Personal transformation

For individuals, marriage represents:

• A deep, lifelong commitment
• Entry into the grihastha (householder) stage with new responsibilities
• Completion of one's status as an adult
• The wife becomes ardhangini (the better half of the body)

Religious duty fulfillment

Marriage enables Hindus to fulfil religious obligations, including:

• Performing household rituals
• Raising children in the faith
• Supporting each other's spiritual development
• Living according to dharma

Significance for the community

Family and community joining

While marriage primarily concerns the couple, the elaborate rituals serve as community celebrations. Hindu weddings are viewed as:

• Joining of extended families, not just individuals
• Recognition of contributions from many community members
• Community events lasting several days

Affirming Hindu teachings

Wedding ceremonies affirm multiple aspects of Hindu belief:

• The role marriage plays in binding communities together
• Many aspects of Hindu teachings and beliefs
• The particular varna or jati the couple belong to
• Associated responsibilities and requirements

Cultural transmission

Through elaborate public ceremonies, communities transmit cultural values and religious traditions to younger generations, ensuring continuity of Hindu practice.

Pilgrimage

Understanding pilgrimage beliefs

Definition and purpose

Pilgrimage is a religious journey undertaken to worship at particular places associated with the religious tradition. In Hinduism, pilgrimage holds significant importance as a spiritual practice.

The Sanskrit and Hindi word for pilgrimage is tirtha, which means a river ford or crossing place. This carries deeper meaning - it suggests transition from one element to another, or metaphorically from a state of trouble or from one life to another (or even to moksha).

Religious foundations

Hindu writings reference pilgrimage practice:

• The Rig Veda praises the wanderer
• The Mahabharata and Puranas speak of the significance of particular sites
• The smrti writings (especially the Puranas and Sthala Puranas) discuss the importance and sanctity of sites

Frequency and commitment

Hindus are encouraged to undertake pilgrimage at least once a year. Many sannyasi (renunciates) engage in lifelong, daily pilgrimage. This demonstrates pilgrimage's central role in Hindu spiritual life.

The concept of darsan

Pilgrimage usually involves travel to a sacred site for darsan - to look at an image of a god and allow the god to see you. Thus, pilgrimages are often made to places where images of particular deities are located, or to significant places linked with the gods, such as the Ganges River.

Types of pilgrimage sites

Hindu pilgrimage places include:

• Natural sites (rivers, crossings, mountains)
• Geographical locations associated with stories of the gods
• Temples containing images of gods (murti)
• Sites associated with great teachers and gurus

Some sites are particularly significant, though literally thousands of pilgrimage sites exist throughout India and beyond.

The pilgrim's journey

Hindu pilgrims typically:

• Dress lightly
• Travel on foot (especially in India, though trucks and buses are sometimes organised)
• Seek to suffer discomfort, gaining awareness of others' suffering
• Forget their usual comfort
• Gain good karma through hardship

Community and learning aspects

Pilgrimage serves multiple purposes:

• Brings Hindus together, creating unity and community
• Provides opportunities for learning and renewal, especially from great gurus
• Allows meeting with sadhus and sannyasi who may themselves be sources of darsan due to their learning or saintly lives
• Offers chances to pass on Hindu practices, debates and perspectives
• Returns pilgrims home with increased status

Pilgrimage in practice

Most sacred site: The Ganges River

The Ganges River is Hinduism's most sacred site. According to belief:

• The Ganges originally flowed in the heavens
• A holy man's prayers brought it to Earth
• The river's great power required the god Shiva to let it flow through his hair to prevent Earth's destruction
• This is depicted in images of Shiva as Gangahara (bearer of the Ganges) and Shiva Nataraja (Lord of the Dance)

Major pilgrimage cities and sites

Varanasi (formerly Benares)

• One of the world's oldest inhabited towns
• Sits on the Ganges banks
• Dedicated to Shiva, believed to have lived there
• Bathing in the Ganges at Varanasi brings purification of the soul
• Dying in Varanasi results in release from the rebirth cycle

Allahabad (originally Prayag)

• Where the Ganges and Yamuna rivers meet
• Also joined by the Sarasvati (a spiritual river invisible to human eyes)
• The Kumbha Mela festival celebrates here every 12 years
• The sangam (confluence of three rivers) provides powerful purification when bathing

Mount Kailas

• Located just north of the Tibet border
• Understood as the home of Shiva and Parvati
• Its shape resembles a lingam
• Particularly inaccessible, increasing its veneration and the pilgrim's chance of moksha

Armanath

• Cave containing ice formations
• Formations believed to resemble Hindu gods including a Shiva lingam, Ganesha, Parvati and others
• Especially venerable due to inaccessibility

Kanchipuram

• Sacred site in Tamil Nadu's southern state
• Shiva temples are the pilgrimage focus
• Centre for Tamil learning

Pushkar

• Western India location
• Contains one of few Brahma temples
• Temple built around a holy pool of water from where Brahma threw flowers
• One particular day each year dedicated to Brahma worship

Mathura and Vrindivan

• Cities in western India
• Associated with events in Krishna's life
• Visited by millions of Krishna devotees annually

Local pilgrimage sites

Almost every Indian city and town has a shrine or temple to a resident deity, providing countless pilgrimage opportunities. The desire to visit particular places depends on:

• The pilgrim's beliefs
• The Hindu variant followed
• The devotee's particular circumstances
• Available opportunities

International pilgrimage sites

While India contains most sites, significant locations exist elsewhere:

• Sri Siva Subrahmanya Swami Temple (Nadi, Fiji)
• Murugan temple (Batu Caves, Malaysia)
• Temple Besakih (Bali, Indonesia)
• Prambanan (Java, Indonesia)
• Borobudur (Java) - ancient Buddhist temple regarded as Hindu pilgrimage site
• Angkor Wat (Cambodia) - dedicated to Lord Vishnu, built incorporating Hindu time measurements and aligned with stars and planets

Case study: Kumbha Mela

Overview and scale

Kumbha Mela is one of the most significant festivals held at a pilgrimage site. It represents:

• Possibly the oldest continuing religious festival in the world (though some suggest it began only 400 years ago)
• Certainly the largest religious festival globally
• The largest recorded gathering of people in human history

Festival schedule and locations

Kumbha Mela is celebrated approximately every three years at one of four cities:

• Haridwar
• Ujjain
• Nasik
• Prayag

The Prayag festival, held every 12 years, is considered the Great Kumbha Mela.

Mythological origins

The Puranas tell of the churning of the oceans. Four drops of amrita (nectar of immortality) fell from the kumbha (pot) and created the four rivers. At certain auspicious times, these rivers' waters turn back into amrita.

Historical evidence

• Records from China of ritual bathing date from the eighth century CE, possibly referencing Kumbha Mela
• The Hindu teacher Shankara may have stressed the importance of meeting Hindu saints at Kumbha Mela
• Learning from sadhus and bathing in the Ganges remain the two main events

Festival organisation

Preparation involves:

• Huge tent cities erected to accommodate pilgrims
• Attendance by many reclusive sadhus and gurus who make themselves available
• Indian government's massive logistical effort

Festival activities

The Kumbha Mela provides opportunities for:

• Religious discussions and debates - some affecting standardisation of ideas in Hinduism
• Devotional singing
• Mass feeding of holy men and women and the poor
• Medical support and other services, particularly for the poor
• Leaders of different Hindu sects gathering in mutual understanding for sharing ideas

The ritual bathing

The major event is ritual bathing at a specific time - the new-moon day (Amabasya) - determined by astrological calculation. Believers hold that this cleanses them of evil karma accumulated until that day.

Bathing at Prayag carries special significance:

• Prayag is the junction of three major Hindu rivers: Ganges, Yamuna and invisible Sarasvati
• Bathing at the sangam (confluence) increases purification 100 times
• Bathing during Kumbha Mela increases it 1,000 times

Bathing order

When bathing begins, there is a specific hierarchy:

1. Nagas (naked holy men) bathe first
2. Other gurus, sadhus and sannyasi follow
3. Other pilgrims bathe last

Post-bathing activities

After ritual bathing, many pilgrims:

• Return to teachers for learning
• Shop at markets
• Return home
• Stay to watch dances and dramas performed by various players
• View elaborate displays constructed for the event

Spiritual significance

The Kumbha Mela is described by many as the greatest spiritual festival ever held, despite its massive logistical challenges. It represents the pinnacle of Hindu communal pilgrimage practice.

Significance for the individual

Pilgrimage holds profound personal meaning for Hindu practitioners:

Spiritual development

• Pilgrims use the practice to develop good karma for future lives
• The spiritual journey complements the physical journey
• Links with expectations of certain ashramas (life stages)

Religious experiences

• Experiencing darshan at sacred sites
• Learning from gurus and holy people
• Visiting significant sites associated with Hinduism
• Personal connection with the divine

Personal transformation

• Physical hardship builds spiritual awareness
• Suffering discomfort creates empathy for others who suffer
• Forgetting usual comforts develops detachment
• Journey represents transition from one state to another

Significance for the community

Communal gathering

Pilgrimage sites facilitate:

• Meeting with other pilgrims
• Experiencing community as a corporate experience
• Building sense of community through physical presence

Community contribution

Individuals support the community:

• Financially (donations to temples, priests, and holy people)
• Through personal presence, boosting community sense
• Contributing to major events like Kumbha Mela

Educational and cultural functions

Major pilgrimage events include:

• Debates on Hindu philosophy and practice
• Teaching opportunities
• Communal worship
• Support for needy community members
• Standardisation of ideas across Hindu sects

Temple worship (puja)

Understanding temple worship beliefs

Foundation in personal worship

Worship (puja) in Hinduism is primarily a personal act. Many Hindu homes have shrines for personal worship. Temple worship extends these home practices into a communal setting.

Temples as cultural centres

Temples serve multiple functions:

• Places of worship visited by Hindus
• Connecting points between religion and culture
• Community centres in countries outside India
• Educational, community and cultural activity centres alongside religious rituals

Nature of temple worship

Hindu worship comprises:

• Prayers (mantras) - recited formulas and sacred sounds
• Devotion to images (murtis) - worship before divine images
• Appreciation of diagrams (mandalas) - cosmic diagrams representing the universe

Priests typically recite the Vedas to worshippers, though any twice-born Hindu can technically perform readings and prayers.

Three categories of worship

Hindu worship rituals are classified as:

1. Nitya (compulsory) - offerings to home shrines and family gods
2. Naimittika (occasional) - important festivals and celebrations
3. Kamya (optional) - other desirable rituals such as pilgrimage

This classification shows the range from daily personal practice to special communal events.

The temple structure

Temple names and styles

Hindu temples are called:

• Mandir (northern India)
• Koyil (southern India)

Two most prominent architectural forms exist:

• Nagara (northern style)
• Dravida (southern style)

Design principles

Temples are ornate structures featuring elaborate carvings depicting:

• Scenes from great Epics (Ramayana, Mahabharata)
• Images of various Hindu deities
• Characters from Hindu mythology

Temple designs vary considerably, reflecting the culture of the people they serve. However, most follow particular design requirements detailed in ancient writings called the silpashastras.

Architectural features

Most temples built in northern style include:

• Central tower (shikhara) - represents Mount Meru, the centre of the universe
• Mandala pattern - combination of circles and squares representing creation's design
• Central shrine (garbha griha) - dark, womblike shrine holding the central deity image
• The design is highly geometric and architecturally sophisticated

Religious significance of structure

Temples are regarded as earthly homes of the gods. They range from simple roadside shrines to elaborate structures at significant sacred sites.

While usually built to honour a particular deity, temples often include:

• Images and shrines of several gods
• Multiple worship spaces within one complex
• Representations of different Hindu traditions

Multiple buildings

Temples usually comprise:

• Several buildings
• A central main temple
• Several smaller shrines
• Surrounding walls

Temple layout

Most temples follow traditional design:

• Central main temple with surrounding buildings
• Smaller shrines within a surrounding wall
• Shrines where worshippers can offer worship and celebrate festivals
• Geometric and architectural sophistication

The murti (divine image)

Nature of murti

Each temple usually contains an image of a god (murti). The word murti is best translated as "form" or "embodiment."

This understanding shapes how worshippers approach and interact with the murti during puja.

Temple puja in practice

Preparation for temple visit

Before entering a temple, devotees must:

• Purify themselves by performing ablutions (ritual washing of legs and hands)
• Remove their shoes
• Be adorned with sacred symbols, such as ash
• Prepare an offering to give to the gods

Role of the priest

Temple puja is always conducted by a priest (typically a Brahmin). The priest's responsibilities include:

Daily care of murti:

• Bathing the images with ghee, milk products or honey
• Dressing the murti
• Decorating with flowers
• Purifying the images

During worship:

• Chanting texts from the Vedas
• Placing a red mark (tilak) on worshippers' foreheads
• Conducting elaborate services with offerings
• Waving fire before the gods
• Ringing bells
• Reading from sacred writings
• Chanting prayers or mantras

Worship activities

Temple puja includes:

• Offerings to the deity (food, flowers, money, incense, other sacrifices)
• Chanting from the Vedas
• Offerings of puffed rice and ghee thrown into fire
• Readings from sacred writings
• Chanting of prayers or mantras
• Bell ringing by the priest
• Sharing of food offered to gods among worshippers

Worshipper participation

During temple visits, devotees:

• Acknowledge the gods as they enter the temple
• Perform appropriate prostration
• Think about the gods during worship
• Chant, pray, and sing with appropriate behaviour
• Circumambulate (walk around) in a clockwise direction, keeping the shrine on the right (spiritually purer) side
• Experience darshan through viewing the images
• Ask favours, fulfil vows, or share in prasada (food offered to deities)
• Pass hands through the fire of the arati lamp for cleansing
• Donate money to the temple and priest
• Return frequently to the temple

Holy water is used to convey blessing throughout the ceremony.

Flow of worship

Temple puja is not usually an organised service but an opportunity for individuals and groups to worship together. It can extend through the day as people come and go with excitement and involvement.

Source of chants

Most chants and rituals used by priests are taken from the Vedas, though mantras for worship, particularly those used by people, often come from the Puranas.

Celebrations and festivals

Nature of celebrations

Special celebrations mark particular events or times of year through feasts and festivals. Many were originally seasonal or agricultural festivals given religious significance.

Popular festivals

More popular festivals acknowledge:

• The birth of Rama
• The birth of Krishna
• The birth of Ganesha
• The triumph of light over darkness
• The Navaratri (Durga puja)

Example: Diwali (Festival of Lights)

Diwali represents one festival with significant community religious observance:

Timing and purpose:

• Takes place around October/November
• Celebrates the New Year in many Hindu communities
• Time to worship Lakshmi (consort of Lord Vishnu, goddess of wealth and good fortune)

Observances:

• Welcoming the new year with signs of prosperity
• Acknowledging the triumph of good over evil
• Triumph of light over darkness
• On the new moon night, Hindus offer light and food (especially sweets) to deities
• Fireworks often follow celebrations and worship

Example: Ganesha Chaturthi

At some temples, such as the Helensburgh temple in Australia, Ganesha Chaturthi is the biggest festival of the year, demonstrating how different communities emphasise different celebrations.

Festival locations

Celebrations occur at:

• Village temples
• Special sacred sites like the Ganges River
• Community temples

Special public events are often held annually, where many people celebrate and offer worship. This may include acting out great Hindu Epics, such as the Ramayana story.

Appropriate disciplines for temple worship

Many Hindus consider the following disciplines appropriate when attending temple for puja:

• Washing and cleaning before going to the temple
• Performing ablutions (washing of legs and hands)
• Being adorned with sacred symbols, such as ash
• Taking an offering to give to the gods
• Not wearing shoes within the temple
• Appropriate prostration within the temple
• Acknowledging the gods as the temple is entered
• Thinking about the gods during worship
• Chanting, praying, singing with appropriate behaviour
• Donating money to the temple and priest
• Returning frequently to the temple

These disciplines reflect respect for the sacred space and preparation for encountering the divine.

Significance for the individual

Personal worship experience

While temple puja is a public event, it functions primarily as an individual act. The focus is not on collective worship but on personal encounters with the divine.

Key individual experiences:

• Darshan - seeing and being seen by the deity
• Grace of the gods - experiencing divine blessing
• Ritual performance - circumambulation and prayer
• Making offerings - personal gifts to deities
• Personal cleansing - seeking purification

Spiritual development

Temple puja provides opportunities for:

• Regular spiritual practice beyond home worship
• Learning from priests and community members
• Fulfilling religious obligations
• Building good karma
• Progressing on the path toward moksha

Thus, temple puja is extremely significant for the individual's spiritual journey, even within a communal setting.

Significance for the community

Community gathering

Temple puja creates opportunities for community cohesion:

• Celebrating together
• Joining for special occasions
• Supporting one another spiritually

Cultural and educational centre

Especially in expatriate communities like Australia's Indian communities, temples become:

• Significant cultural centres
• Educational hubs
• Focus of community festivals and celebrations
• Places for transmitting Hindu culture to younger generations

Institutional identity

Temple puja represents:

• A statement of institutional cultural and communal identity
• Something that transcends the actual puja ceremony itself
• A way to maintain Hindu identity in diaspora settings
• A gathering place for the entire community

Community activities

Beyond worship, temples host:

• Educational programs
• Cultural activities
• Social events
• Community support services

This makes the temple central to Hindu community life, particularly outside India.