Ethics (HSC SSCE Studies of Religion): Revision Notes

Ethics

Introduction to Islamic ethics

Islamic ethics are fundamentally connected to two core beliefs: tawhid (the oneness of Allah) and the belief in the afterlife. These beliefs shape how Muslims understand right and wrong behaviour in all aspects of life.

The primary aim of Islamic ethics is to do good things while avoiding bad and harmful things, as guided by Allah in the Qur'an and demonstrated through the example of Prophet Muhammad. Muslims believe their actions will be judged by Allah in the afterlife, which motivates them to live according to Islamic principles and face God having done mostly good in their lives.

Fitrah: the natural inclination towards good

Islam teaches that all human beings possess a fitrah, which is a natural disposition towards belief in God and doing good things. This is more than simply the ability to reason—it represents an innate capacity to recognise Allah and understand the difference between right and wrong. When someone chooses to act against this natural inclination, they are doing wrong.

Zulm: acting wrongly

The term zulm describes the act of doing wrong against Allah, against another person, or against oneself. This concept emphasises that wrongdoing affects not only our relationship with God but also our relationships with others and our own wellbeing.

The foundation in tawhid

Muslims base their ethical practices and principles in tawhid. Because of Allah's greatness, human beings are expected to obey his commands contained in the Qur'an and express their obedience through both behaviour and belief. This includes not only devotion to Allah but also ethical behaviour towards others.

The Qur'an provides clear guidance on ethical behaviour. For example, Qur'an 4:36 instructs Muslims to:

• Serve Allah and join no partners with him
• Do good to parents, relatives, orphans, and those in need
• Be kind to neighbours (both near and strangers)
• Be compassionate to companions and travellers
• Avoid arrogance and vanity

Bioethics

Bioethics refers to ethical issues relating to human biology, healthcare, and biological science. Islamic bioethics is grounded in several key principles that guide Muslim responses to modern medical questions.

Core principles of Islamic bioethics

The sanctity of human life is the foundational concept in Islamic bioethics. Muslims believe that only Allah can decide issues of life and death because Allah is the one who gave humans life in the first place. This principle is directly linked to tawhid—the oneness, unity, and authority of Allah.

The Qur'an clearly establishes Allah's authority over life and death:

• "Nor take life – which Allah has made sacred – except for a just cause" (Qur'an 17:33)
• "It is Allah who gives you life then gives you death; then he will gather you together for the day of judgement about which there is no doubt" (Qur'an 45:26)

Trust in Allah is also a central concept in Islamic bioethics. Muslims are expected to submit to Allah's will and trust in his divine plan. Islamic bioethics is therefore motivated by submission to Allah and combines duties, rights, and a call to virtue. The principles expressed in Shari'a law aim to guard humans against harm and suffering while ensuring rights and dignity for all individuals.

Abortion

Islam places strong emphasis on the value of human life, and abortion is generally condemned because life is in the hands of Allah. The Qur'an states: "We [Allah] cause whom we will to rest in the wombs for an appointed term, then do we bring you out as babies" (Qur'an 22:5).

Some Muslims permit abortion up until the 120th day of pregnancy, when it is believed the soul enters the child. However, abortion is generally considered wrong because once conception occurs, the child's right to live becomes the overarching priority.

Contraception

Contraception is generally discouraged in Islam because it interferes with the natural process of procreation. However, there is a range of Muslim viewpoints on this subject.

The twelfth-century scholar Al-Ghazali suggested that contraception is appropriate in certain circumstances, such as when there are concerns about the health of the mother or financial hardship. However, he opposed contraception when used to avoid the birth of a female child.

Some Muslims view the practice of contraception as a sign of lack of trust in Allah. The reasoning is that seeking to prevent pregnancy suggests that parents do not trust Allah to provide for the family. Despite these concerns, there is now a general consensus on the acceptability of contraception in Muslim societies, supported by prominent contemporary scholars (ulama).

Artificial insemination and IVF

For many Muslims, artificial insemination and in-vitro fertilisation (IVF) are considered acceptable when all the genetic material (egg and sperm) comes from the husband and wife within a marriage. This maintains the sanctity of the marriage bond and ensures clarity about parentage.

Gene manipulation and organ transplants

In most cases, gene manipulation is condemned as attempting to alter Allah's creation. Muslims believe that humans should not interfere with the way Allah has created human beings.

However, organ transplants are generally acceptable in most circumstances. The key considerations are:

• Whether the person donating the organs is actually dead
• Whether clear permission has been given for the donation

While there are some concerns related to respect for the human body, the potential to save lives through organ donation is generally viewed positively, as long as proper procedures are followed.

Euthanasia

Euthanasia is not accepted in Islam. It is considered contrary to the role of Allah as the divine planner for human life. Muslims believe they should seek Allah's patience to cope with the sufferings of life rather than ending life prematurely.

The Qur'an encourages firm trust in Allah and his divine purposes: "O you who believe! Seek help with patient perseverance and prayer: for Allah is with those who patiently persevere" (Qur'an 2:153-156).

The Qur'an continues: "Be sure we shall test you with something of fear, and hunger, some loss in goods or lives or the fruits of your toil, but give glad tidings to those who patiently persevere – who say, when afflicted with calamity: 'To Allah we belong, and to him is our return'" (Qur'an 2:153-156).

Palliative care

Islam places great importance on providing quality palliative care for the dying and those experiencing painful diseases. While the sufferer's family is considered the primary source for that care, the broader Muslim community is also expected to be greatly involved in supporting those who are suffering.

Modern diversity of views

The modern Muslim community reflects a diversity of views on bioethical issues. This variety arises from several factors:

• Different schools of jurisprudence
• Different Islamic sects (Sunni, Shi'a, etc.)
• Different cultural backgrounds of community members
• Different levels of religious observance

Environmental ethics

Islamic environmental ethics are deeply rooted in Islamic beliefs and provide a comprehensive framework for understanding humanity's relationship with the natural world.

Key concepts in Islamic environmental ethics

Four central concepts underpin Islamic environmental ethics:

Tawhid (unity) refers to the uniqueness of Allah and the integrity of his creation. In environmental terms, this concept emphasises that all of creation reflects the oneness of Allah. It does not suggest that Allah is one with creation, but rather that creation as a whole reflects the uniqueness of Allah. Muslims must therefore respect the unity and wholeness of creation.

Khilafa (stewardship) describes the human responsibility to show respect and care for creation. Muslims believe that human beings are made "heirs to the earth" (Qur'an 6:165), which implies due care and responsibility in its use. Humans are to be guardians or trustees of Allah's created world, not exploiters of it.

Akhira (afterlife) reminds Muslims that they will be held accountable for their actions. On the final judgement day, all human beings will need to give a reckoning of their actions. This accountability includes care for the world and the environment, and responsibility for maintaining the integrity and unity of creation, its flora and fauna, its wildlife, and natural environment.

Mizaan (balance) emphasises the importance of living sustainably and avoiding extreme exploitation of the Earth's resources. Muslims believe Allah created a perfect balance in nature that should be maintained.

The Qur'anic foundation for environmental care

The Qur'an contains many verses that speak about the created world, often in relation to daily life and practice. These verses establish both the beauty of creation and humanity's responsibility to care for it.

A particularly significant passage states: "And the earth – we have spread it out and set thereon mountains standing firm and produced therein every kind of beautiful growth – to be observed and commemorated by every devotee turning to Allah" (Qur'an 50:7-8).

The world as Allah's creation

The general principle guiding Islamic environmental ethics is that the world is created by Allah and for the good of humankind. However, the created world does not belong to human beings—it belongs to Allah. Humans are to be guardians of the world, practicing khilafa (stewardship).

Practical environmental practices in Islam

Islamic environmental ethics are not merely theoretical but include many practical applications in daily Muslim life.

Animal welfare: Muslims do not kill animals carelessly and have imposed rituals to ensure that when animals are slaughtered, it is done as mercifully as possible. While halal food laws specify what Muslims may eat, they also require that animals be slaughtered humanely. The reason for humane slaughter reflects Allah's concern for his creation.

Water conservation: When Muslims wash before prayer (wudu), they must do so in a way that conserves water. This practice reinforces daily awareness of environmental responsibility.

Sustainable food production: During Ramadan, the month of fasting, Muslims meditate on how and why they consume food. Some Muslims argue that using land for crop production instead of animal production would lead to far more efficient use of land resources.

Balance in nature: Modern scholars emphasise that the Qur'an speaks of a balance in nature that should be maintained. This understanding comes from the assumption that the world belongs to Allah, and humans must not upset the balance Allah created.

Historical awareness of environmental fragility

Environmental protection in Shari'a

Islam seeks to be practical in its worldview, and concern for the environment has been included in the development of Shari'a law.

Protected zones: Fragile geographical zones are considered haram (forbidden) in Shari'a. These sites are protected by law and typically positioned to ensure access to parkland and nature, restrict urban sprawl, and protect watercourses and bases. For instance, peat fields in Sumatra that are being burned to plant palm oil crops have recently been declared haram by Muslim clerics in Indonesia.

Prohibited actions: Actions that degrade the environment are considered haram, such as pollution of air and water, and excessive water usage.

Animal rights: A statement of legal rights for animals was developed as early as the thirteenth century by the Muslim jurist Izz ad-Din ibn 'Abd al-Salam, demonstrating Islam's long history of concern for animal welfare.

Modern Islamic environmental initiatives

Muslims have been actively working to address environmental challenges through various initiatives and organisations.

Australian initiatives: The Islamic Sciences and Research Academy, Australia (ISRA) is a member of the Faith Ecology Network and has helped develop the Climate Change Action Kit published by the Australian Religious Response to Climate Change. ISRA is involved in both educational initiatives and hands-on activities, along with other Australian Muslim organisations.

Global Muslim environmental organisations: Several organisations work on environmental issues from an Islamic perspective, including Green Muslims, EcoMENA, and the Islamic Foundation for Ecology and Environmental Sciences (IFEES).

Sexual ethics

Sexual ethics in Islam are clearly defined through the categories of halal (lawful) and haram (unlawful) activities. These determinations are made first by the Qur'an, then by Hadith collections, and finally by Shari'a law codes and their various schools of interpretation.

The importance of marriage (nikah)

Nikah is a complex term often translated as marriage, but it carries connotations of embracing and sexual intimacy. Marriage is a legally binding contract in the Qur'an and forms an important part of Shari'a as it determines how families function. A marriage must be publicly announced, and it represents a confirmation of male and female togetherness within the wider Islamic community.

The Qur'an makes clear who can and cannot be defined as a family member. Passages such as Qur'an 4:23 explain in detail whom a man can and cannot marry. The Qur'an also delineates the permissible sexual relationships between a man and women legally bound to him through marriage.

Qur'an 23:5-6 states: "...who guard their chastity [i.e. private parts from illegal sexual acts] except from their wives or [the slaves] that their right hands possess – for then they are free of blame." These sentiments are repeated in Qur'an 70:29-30, emphasising that sexual relations within marriage are natural and the couple can approach one another freely.

Multiple marriages

The Qur'an allows men to marry up to four wives: "...marry women of your choice, two or three, or four" (Qur'an 4:3). However, this verse must be read alongside Qur'an 4:129, which states: "You will never be able to do perfect justice between wives."

Premarital and extramarital sex

For both women and men, sex before marriage (premarital sex) falls into the category of fornication, known in Arabic as zina. Under Islamic law, premarital and extramarital sex are grave sins condemned in both the Qur'an and Shari'a code. Both are considered violations of the marriage contract.

Diverse applications across Muslim countries

The ethics of premarital and extramarital sex across the Islamic world are interpreted and applied in various ways, reflecting different legal traditions and cultural contexts.

Strict Shari'a countries: Some countries, such as Afghanistan and Saudi Arabia, have incorporated more literal interpretations of Qur'anic verses into their legal systems and adhere to strict interpretation of Shari'a. Saudi Arabia operates under the full force of conservatively interpreted Shari'a and even has a Mutawwa'in (religious police force) that can arrest men and women who are not related and are alone together.

Liberal approaches: Other countries, such as Turkey, the United Arab Emirates, Jordan, Morocco, and Indonesia, have taken far more liberal approaches, incorporating a variety of legal traditions from other countries. While these legal systems are informed by Shari'a, trials are open, decisions can be appealed, and penalties often take the form of fines and prison terms rather than corporal punishment.

Homosexuality

Most Islamic scholars agree that homosexuality is incompatible with Islamic theology, though there is no single "Islamic position" given the diversity of the Muslim community across the world.

Qur'anic references: The Qur'an addresses homosexual behaviour primarily through the story of Lut (Lot) and the city of Sodom. Qur'an 7:80 and related verses recount the destruction of the tribe of Lot allegedly due to their engagement in homosexual acts, which many scholars interpret as evidence of Allah's condemnation of homosexuality.

Hadith guidance: While the Qur'an does not prescribe specific punishments for homosexual acts (known as liwat), Muslim scholars have found sayings of the Prophet that provide clearer direction. In the Hadith collected by Tirmidhi, the Prophet is recorded as saying: "Kill the one who sodomises and the one who lets it be done to him." In the collection by Tabarani, lesbianism is equated to adultery, with punishment being stoning to death.

Varied legal interpretations: Different schools of Islamic law have developed varied responses over the centuries, with some stricter than others. The range of responses demonstrates the interpretive nature of the Qur'an on this issue, though the Hadith collections are generally less ambiguous.

Hidden homosexual activity: Because of social restrictions on contact between Muslim men and women before marriage, men are often in the company of men and women with women. In some Muslim societies, both married men and those looking to marry may engage in sexual relationships with other men. These individuals often continue to identify as good Muslims and good family members, not necessarily identifying themselves as homosexual.

LGBTQ+ Muslim organisations: In Western societies, some communities host "rainbow" mosques that welcome Muslims of all sexualities, though these often operate with some secrecy. The Al-Fatiha Foundation, established in 1998, supports gay and lesbian Muslims, operating mainly in Western countries such as Canada, the United States, and the United Kingdom. Groups like Aswat (Palestinian Feminist Center for Gender and Sexual Freedoms) have emerged to represent Muslim lesbians.

Gender roles

Gender roles vary considerably across Muslim societies, often reflecting cultural norms as much as religious requirements.

Historical perspective: Muhammad supported progressive rights for women in his time, including the right to education, to retain their own identity after marriage, and to buy and sell property. These were quite liberal beliefs for seventh-century Arabia.

Contemporary diversity: In some Muslim countries today, women have limited roles in public life, while in others there is much more freedom. Few women take on the role of imams in mosques, but many take positions of leadership and scholarship, which are highly esteemed in the Muslim community. Examples include Amina Wadud in the USA, and Silma Ihram and Zuleyha Keskin in Australia.

Modesty and dress codes: While the Qur'an (24:30-31) speaks of the importance of modesty for both men and women, the interpretation of these verses tends to reflect cultural traditions. Modesty is enforced through various dress codes in different Muslim societies, and in some cultures, women have been restricted primarily to roles in the home with limited access to mosques.