Ethics (HSC SSCE Studies of Religion): Revision Notes
Ethics
Introduction to Jewish ethics
Jewish ethics find their foundation in the Torah, which serves as the primary source for moral and ethical guidance. Judaism emerged from the belief in a divine revelation at Mount Sinai, where God communicated commands and principles that shape how Jewish people should live. This ethical framework centres on the covenant relationship between God and the Jewish people, which requires adherents to imitate God's qualities of justice and compassion in their daily lives.
The term Halacha (literally meaning "pathway", commonly translated as "Jewish law") describes the comprehensive system that guides Jewish ethical and moral life. Halacha encompasses the 613 commandments (mitzvot) found in the Torah, along with centuries of rabbinic interpretation and application. Significant scholars like Moses Maimonides (1135-1204 CE) and Joseph Karo have shaped this legal framework through their authoritative works, including the Mishneh Torah and the Shulchan Aruch respectively.
Jewish ethics require maintaining positive relationships with both God and other people. The Ten Commandments exemplify this dual obligation, containing commandments directed towards God and those concerning interpersonal relationships. The prophet Micah summarised these ethical demands succinctly: "to do justly, to love mercy, and to walk humbly with thy God" (Micah 6:8).
Modern application of Jewish ethics involves consulting supplementary writings, rabbinic teachings, and a body of scholarship called Responsa—historical letters where Jewish people sought rabbis' guidance on ethical dilemmas. This tradition demonstrates Judaism's ongoing engagement with applying ancient principles to contemporary circumstances.
Bioethics
Core principles
Jewish bioethics centres on the concept of being godly, though this godliness must be expressed through human interactions. The highest ethical priority in Judaism is protecting and saving human life, which takes precedence over virtually any other commandment. Reducing human suffering also holds significant importance, sometimes overriding specific ritual requirements.
The Torah provides the rationale for bioethical decisions, yet its text remains open to varied interpretations. Different branches of Judaism approach these texts differently—Orthodox Judaism adheres more strictly to traditional interpretations, whilst Progressive/Reform Judaism emphasises individual conscience alongside textual authority. This creates diverse responses even within generally expected positions.
Abortion
The deliberate termination of pregnancy has generated ongoing debate within Jewish communities. The Sixth Commandment states "Thou shalt not murder" (Exodus 20:13), yet Exodus 21:22 suggests a foetus may not be considered a murder victim under Jewish law.
Mainstream Judaism generally accepts abortion, though debate continues about when a foetus becomes a human being. Most Jewish authorities do not consider the foetus a human being until birth, although some believe human nature begins 40 days after conception. Jewish law may even require abortion when the mother's life is threatened, as her established life takes priority.
Birth control and abortion are generally acceptable but not actively promoted. Contraception sometimes proves more controversial than abortion in Jewish thought. Some methods face opposition due to the biblical condemnation of "spilling the seed" (Genesis 38:6-10), whilst the positive commandment to "be fruitful and multiply" (Genesis 1:2) creates general reluctance towards preventing conception.
Euthanasia and end-of-life issues
Judaism almost universally condemns euthanasia. Killing a dying person (goses) constitutes murder under Jewish law. However, authorities also reject attempts to artificially prolong life or interfere with natural dying processes.
Understanding Active vs Passive Euthanasia
This means "passive" euthanasia—allowing natural death without extraordinary intervention—becomes acceptable in certain circumstances, whilst "active" euthanasia remains condemned. Physician-assisted suicide is considered equivalent to suicide.
Jewish ethics prioritise improving patients' quality of life through palliative care, recognising that sickness and death form natural parts of human existence. When extreme suffering affects the divine image (tzelem elohim), some liberal rabbis permit terminating life through removing life support.
Suicide faces strong condemnation despite lacking explicit prohibition in the Tanakh. The story of King Saul falling on his sword (1 Samuel 31:3-6) generates much debate. However, rabbis have traditionally shown leniency, often ruling that persons taking their own lives could not have been of sound mind, thus avoiding classification as voluntary suicide. This compassionate interpretation means few deaths are officially ruled as suicides.
Reproductive technology
Artificial insemination and in-vitro fertilisation (IVF) are generally acceptable, particularly when both egg and sperm come from husband and wife. Questions arise concerning the identity of the mother, as Jewish identity follows matrilineal descent—being passed through the mother's line. Where both egg and sperm come from natural parents, IVF represents a God-given opportunity to fulfil the commandment to procreate. Using donor sperm or eggs proves more problematic for some authorities.
Jewish law generally requires both parents to be alive at conception—using frozen genetic material after one parent's death is not universally acceptable. Nevertheless, most Halachists (experts in Jewish law) have embraced fertility-assistance technology.
Genetic technology
Judaism maintains a relatively relaxed approach to gene technology and manipulation. Genetic testing is actually encouraged because certain genetic diseases, such as Tay-Sachs disease (a rare inherited disorder progressively destroying nerve cells in the brain and spinal cord), are more common in Jewish communities and need elimination. Genetic engineering, including cloning, receives encouragement from most Jewish authorities, though some object to replacing natural reproduction with cloning.
Modern challenges
Judaism acknowledges that ancient writings may not directly address modern technological issues. Nevertheless, the chain of tradition provides the foundation for developing contemporary law. Modern experts disagree even within the same schools of thought—for example, many rabbis consider death to occur when the heart stops beating, whilst the Chief Rabbinate of Israel accepts brain death as sufficient evidence.
A unique, singular understanding of Jewish bioethics may no longer be attainable. Judaism has always been characterised by multiple interpretations rather than single understandings, expressing itself through varied opinions in relation to changing technologies, issues, and schools of thought.
Environmental ethics
Theological foundations
The Torah provides the rationale for Jewish environmental ethics through its teaching that the world is God's creation and human beings serve as stewards or caretakers of it. This creates a theocentric (God-centred) focus for Jewish environmental ethics. God commanded humans to care for the Earth, leading to ongoing debate about relationships between God, His creation, and humanity. For Jewish people, the caretaker role means living in environmentally friendly and sustainable ways.
Stewardship vs Dominion
Genesis 1:28 instructs humans to "be fruitful, multiply, replenish the earth, and subdue it" and have "dominion" over living creatures. Jewish interpretation views this as involving a duty of care rather than exploitative power. Psalm 8 speaks of the wonder of creation and human responsibility, whilst the naming of animals in Genesis 2:20 suggests developing relationships rather than establishing power structures.
God's concern extends to the entire created world—people, creatures, and everything upon Earth. Whilst humans might represent the pinnacle of creation, the whole Earth reflects the connectedness of God's creative work and the importance of all created things (Psalms 104, Job 12:7-10).
Sabbath and Jubilee principles
Environmental concern finds expression in the concepts of Shabbat (Sabbath) and the Year of Jubilee. The command to keep the Sabbath day holy (Exodus 20:8-11) includes rest for people, animals, and land. On Shabbat, Jewish people should be in harmony with the natural environment, neither creating nor destroying.
The Torah mandates a Sabbath year every seven years, involving forgiveness of debts and release of slaves. The Year of Jubilee, celebrated every 50th year, requires total rest for the land, restoration of property, release of slaves, and debt forgiveness. These practices demonstrate that environmental ethics extend beyond land itself to encompass social relationships and justice.
Animal welfare and resource conservation
The Tanakh frequently emphasises caring for animals (Proverbs 12:10, Deuteronomy 22:4,10, Exodus 23:4-5, Leviticus 22:27-28).
Talmudic Teaching on Animal Welfare
The Talmud states that "a man may not sit down to his own meal until he has fed his animals" (Berakhot 4a). This principle prioritises the needs of dependent creatures before one's own comfort.
The creation story suggests humans were originally intended to be vegetarian (Genesis 1:29); later permission to eat meat came with requirements that slaughter must minimise pain and suffering.
The command Bal Tashchit ("Thou shalt not destroy") from Deuteronomy 20:19 originally prohibited destroying fruit trees during sieges. Jewish thought has extended this principle to refer to any destruction without specific purpose. Thus, the environment receives protection and, as an act of mercy, resources remain available to others.
Tikkun olam and modern practice
The concept of tikkun olam ("repairing the world") holds importance for environmental ethics as part of the restorative process. Environmental ethics in Judaism represents cooperation with God in creative work. Before Israel's establishment in 1948, Zionist pioneers planted trees in the barren landscape, literally attempting to repair the damaged environment whilst also repairing social relationships and restoring social justice. In Judaism, social justice work extends from environmental ethics.
The Rowboat Parable
Rabbi Arthur Hertzberg's 1986 "Jewish Declaration on Nature" (part of the Assisi Declaration) included a story of two men in a rowboat, one sawing through the boat's bottom claiming it was his right. The other noted the implications for both passengers. Hertzberg observed: "We are all passengers together in this same fragile and glorious world. Let us safeguard our rowboat—and let us row together."
In the Messianic Age, the fulfilment of tikkun olam—the recreation of the world—appears as part of a utopian vision. This vision displays itself in keeping commandments and pursuing social justice, which incorporates environmental care.
Many environmental organisations have developed within Judaism, including:
- The Jewish Ecological Coalition (offering resources and coordinating environmental initiatives in Australia)
- The Jewish National Fund (supporting Green Sunday and tree planting in Israel, having planted approximately 240 million trees)
- B'nai B'rith (active in Australia and New Zealand, joining environmental initiatives with social justice advocacy)
Sexual ethics
Marriage as the ideal
Sexual ethics in Judaism concern behaviour in interpersonal relationships. Sexual relations should be expressed within marriage, where they serve as a source of pleasure and fulfilment for both husband and wife. Codes of behaviour include family purity laws (Taharat Ha-Mishpachah), incorporating concepts of niddah (menstruation) and mikvah (ritual bath). Sanctions restrict expressions of sexuality outside marriage.
The underlying principle for expressions outside marriage emphasises showing respect to oneself and others. Judaism maintains rules associated with modesty (tzniut), physical contact (negiah), menstruation (niddah), and seclusion with members of the opposite sex (yichud).
Marriage as Reunification
Marriage represents the norm for men and women, based on the Creation story where Adam and Eve were created male and female to become "one flesh". Marriage therefore constitutes a return to an ideal, reuniting male and female as one. The family forms the basic unit for expressing faith, with ceremonies like welcoming Shabbat occurring primarily in homes rather than synagogues.
In marriage, husband and wife are companions in a relationship designed for procreation and mutual comfort (Genesis 1:28, 2:18). Marriage symbolises the relationship between God and His people, as illustrated in the book of Hosea. The primary purpose is companionship, with sexual relationships important to that companionship. Procreation, whilst valued, holds less importance, though contraception is not encouraged in Orthodox Judaism (Reform Judaism takes a more liberal approach).
The family serves as the transmitter of traditions, the place for obeying commandments (including "honour thy father and mother"), and the primary place of religious observance. Marriage is kidushin, literally meaning "holiness".
Premarital and extramarital relations
Celibacy is considered wrong—a reneging of ideals. "It is not good that the man should be alone" (Genesis 2:18). Historically, Judaism has had very limited expression of monasticism. God instructed Jewish people to "be fruitful and multiply" (Genesis 1:28, Genesis 35:11). Sex is considered a normal expression of love that should occur within marriage.
Premarital and extramarital sex are not acceptable. Adultery appears specifically in the Ten Commandments (Exodus 20:14). Adultery, incest, and homosexuality are prohibited by the Torah (Leviticus 18:6-23).
Whilst marriage represents the ideal, divorce is permitted in Judaism through a document called a get. Different variants of Judaism maintain different divorce procedures. The reference in Malachi 2:4 demonstrates that divorce constitutes a serious breach of a holy contract.
Many modern Jewish people find maintaining the rigour commanded in the Tanakh and traditional teachings difficult in the contemporary world. Judaism considers the traditional family unit necessary, whilst society increasingly includes non-traditional families. Though premarital sex is not encouraged, many young Jewish people view it as acceptable in the modern era.
Nevertheless, Judaism persists in promoting the family as ideal. Adultery, incest, and prostitution face utter condemnation. The family unit remains the central social unit, and any practice undermining it receives condemnation.
Modern Jewish people acknowledge the difference between Jewish values and contemporary life values as a significant issue. Like everyone else, Jewish people are influenced by prevailing culture of their place and time, so their attitudes and practices generally prove more flexible than suggested by Orthodox doctrines and traditions.
Homosexuality
Traditional Judaism has prohibited homosexuality based on several Torah passages, most obviously Leviticus 18:22: "Thou shalt not lie with mankind, as with womankind; it is abomination". Similar injunctions appear in Leviticus 20:13. Some interpret the story of Sodom (Genesis 19) as referencing homosexuality, though others see it as condemning failure to provide hospitality or homosexual rape rather than consensual homosexual relations.
Leviticus prescribes capital punishment for homosexual acts. However, proving such acts requires two eyewitnesses, and no accounts of punishment exist even in biblical times or later Jewish history.
Evolving Perspectives on Homosexuality
In contemporary Judaism, homosexuality is considered a matter of personal choice but is discouraged. Homosexual people are discouraged from practising their inclination. However, significant changes have occurred—in December 2006, the legal body in Conservative Judaism in America voted to ordain gay rabbis and celebrate same-sex commitment ceremonies. In October 2007, Progressive Jewish rabbis in Australia decided to support same-sex commitment ceremonies, following English Judaism's lead.
Dayenu, a Sydney-based organisation established in 1999, serves the needs of Jewish LGBTQI+ people and their supporters, participating annually in Sydney's Gay and Lesbian Mardi Gras. Yet in most Jewish day-to-day practice and in Australian Judaism, opposition to homosexual expression continues.
Biblical stories may hint at homosexual love. The most famous passage appears in the books of Samuel, where King David describes his love for Jonathan as "wonderful was thy love to me, passing the love of women" (2 Samuel 1:26). This passage does not necessarily suggest homosexual acts occurred, but it alludes to powerful love between them, whether extremely deep friendship or platonic love.
Lesbianism is not mentioned directly in the Tanakh, though many rabbis interpret Leviticus 18:3 as referencing it. One reference to lesbianism appears in the Talmud and in Moses Maimonides' writing, where it is prohibited but not in terms as strong as male homosexuality prohibitions.
Reasons homosexuality remains unacceptable include Torah prohibitions and because procreation is impossible, contravening Genesis 2:18. However, procreation is never seen as the sole reason for sexual acts. Homosexuality does undermine the family concept and its role in Judaism.
Progressive and Conservative Jewish people are more likely to accept homosexuality, and even Orthodox Jewish people do not persecute homosexual individuals. The strictly Orthodox distinguish between homosexual acts and homosexual orientation. Most synagogues, including Orthodox ones, welcome homosexual individuals and couples into their communities.
Gender roles and discrimination
Gender roles in traditional Judaism are clearly defined. Fewer women than men receive specific mention in the Tanakh, though mentioned women hold considerable significance. The Matriarchs of Israel (Sarah, Rebecca, Rachel, and Leah) are respected and emulated. Deborah appears as a judge, Huldah as a prophetess, and Ruth as a Gentile convert who became King David's grandmother. Several of David's wives are mentioned, and Esther became Persia's queen, saving the Jewish people from destruction—an event remembered in the Feast of Purim. These women fulfilled leadership roles in Israel and performed religious functions, contrasting with later attitudes that women's main purpose was childbearing.
Several references to women appear in rabbinic literature, though only one woman—Beruriah—was a scholar. Over time, women became restricted to household roles, with emphasis on modest dress and restriction on public roles. However, Kabbalah's influence developed emphasis on God's feminine aspects.
In modern Judaism, women's roles receive different interpretations across Judaism's variants:
Orthodox Judaism exempts women from many commandments, and ultra-Orthodox communities discourage women from serious Talmudic study engagement (though since 1990, Orthodox women's higher Jewish learning has grown, with thousands of Orthodox women in Israel now engaged in full-time learning). Women sit separately from men in Orthodox synagogues and were previously discouraged from leadership roles and not ordained as rabbis. Modesty and purity rules are enforced, and women cannot be witnesses in rabbinic courts for some matters. Women's Tefillah (prayer) groups have become important in Orthodox Jewish life, though not in ultra-Orthodox circles.
Conservative Judaism resembled Orthodox Judaism regarding women's status until the 1970s. Since then, major changes have occurred, mostly case-by-case. Most Conservative synagogues today have mixed seating.
Progressive Judaism has taken a radically different position. Since the Progressive movement's nineteenth-century inception, women have been included with men in synagogues. Women can participate in roles previously reserved for men, such as publicly reading Torah, wearing tallit (prayer shawl) and tefillin (leather box and straps), being part of the minyan (quorum of 10 Jewish people needed to form a synagogue), serving as cantor, and being ordained as rabbis.
An important gender-related aspect in Judaism is that family generations are traced through matrilineal descent—one must have a Jewish mother to be Jewish. Progressive Judaism has accepted patrilineal descent, though this remains debated in some communities.
With feminism's rise, considerable debate now exists in all Jewish circles about gender. The Jewish feminist movement since the 1970s has sought to address concerns including male-dominated minyan, limited acceptability of female witnesses, female inability to initiate divorce, and male-only commandments. Significant opposition has come from many Orthodox rabbis, though other variants prove more amenable to change.
Jewish feminists have sought to study Judaism's aspects widely, with significant Jewish feminists across all Judaism's variants. Women scholars include Blu Greenberg (Orthodox) and Judith Plaskow (Conservative). Groups like Nivcharot foundation, a Haredi (ultra-Orthodox) Jewish feminist group in Israel, work to counter violence against women within Haredi communities, breaking taboos to raise awareness.
Key Points to Remember:
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Jewish ethics originate from the Torah and covenant relationship with God, requiring adherents to imitate God's justice and compassion through Halacha (Jewish law) and the 613 mitzvot (commandments).
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Bioethics centres on protecting human life as the highest priority. Abortion is generally acceptable (especially to save the mother's life), euthanasia is condemned (though passive euthanasia may be acceptable), and reproductive technologies like IVF are generally embraced when using married couples' genetic material.
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Environmental ethics are theocentric (God-centred), viewing humans as stewards of God's creation. Key principles include Sabbath and Jubilee year rest for the land, Bal Tashchit (prohibition of needless destruction), and tikkun olam (repairing the world).
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Sexual ethics emphasise marriage as the ideal context for sexual relations. Premarital and extramarital sex are condemned, whilst attitudes toward homosexuality vary by denomination—from traditional prohibition in Orthodox Judaism to acceptance and ordination of LGBTQI+ rabbis in Progressive movements.
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Gender roles remain debated, with Orthodox Judaism maintaining traditional separate roles for men and women, Conservative Judaism gradually evolving, and Progressive Judaism achieving full equality including ordaining female rabbis since the nineteenth century.