Religious Expression in Australia – 1945 to the Present (HSC SSCE Studies of Religion): Revision Notes

Religious Expression in Australia – 1945 to the Present

Introduction: The changing religious landscape

Religious expression in Australia has undergone substantial transformation since 1945. Australia now represents a microcosm of global religious life, with almost every major religious tradition present across hundreds of communities, particularly in major cities. This diversity emerged despite Australia's historically isolationist and often racist immigration policies.

From 1901 until the 1960s, the Commonwealth Immigration Restriction Act (commonly known as the 'White Australia policy') severely restricted non-European immigration. This policy reflected the ideal of maintaining a homogenised white Australia. Despite increasing diversity, Australia remains essentially a Christian nation in its cultural framework. Public holidays reflect Western Christian festivals (Easter and Christmas), Christian prayers open Parliament, and Christianity remains the predominant faith declaration among politicians.

However, religious affiliations have changed radically since 1945. While Christianity claims the largest following, other traditions are growing more rapidly, and there has been significant growth in those with no religious affiliation. Some scholars now describe Australia as a post-Christian society.

Changing patterns of religious adherence: The Australian census

Census methodology and limitations

Questions about religious adherence are optional on Australian census forms, and response patterns have varied over the years. Despite being optional, census data provides the most comprehensive picture of religious affiliation in Australia.

Key census findings (1996-2016)

The census data reveals several significant trends:

Christianity: Remains the largest religious tradition but is declining both in numbers and as a percentage of the population. In 2016, Christianity accounted for 52.1% of the population, down from 61.1% in 2011 and 70.9% in 1996. This represents a decline of 7.22% between 2011 and 2016.

Catholic and Anglican denominations: Catholics replaced Anglicans as the largest Christian denomination in 1986 and have maintained this position. In 2016, there were 5,291,839 Catholics (a 2.7% decrease from 2011) and 3,101,187 Anglicans (a 15.7% decrease from 2011).

Pentecostal churches: Experienced the largest proportional growth among Christian denominations at 9.5% between 2011 and 2016, reaching 260,558 adherents. However, Pentecostal churches also face challenges with retention, sometimes called the 'revolving door syndrome'.

Non-Christian religions: All major non-Christian traditions (except Judaism) are growing:

Religion	2016 Population	% of Population	% Growth 2011-16
Islam	604,242	2.6%	26.86%
Buddhism	563,674	2.4%	6.56%
Hinduism	440,300	1.9%	59.80%
Judaism	91,025	0.4%	-6.48%

Hinduism is now the fastest-growing religious tradition in Australia. Islam is the second-largest religious tradition after Christianity.

No religion: This category has shown dramatic growth, increasing from 16.6% in 1996 to 30.1% in 2016. This represents a 46.78% increase between 2011 and 2016, reaching 7,040,717 people. This category includes secular beliefs (such as atheism) and other spiritual beliefs (such as New Age).

Not stated: Those who chose not to answer the religion question increased to 9.6% (2,238,735 people) in 2016.

The current religious landscape

Christianity as the major religious tradition

When Australia was colonised by the British in 1788, they brought Christianity with them, particularly the Church of England (Anglican Church). Since World War II, the composition of Christianity has changed significantly with the arrival of Orthodox Christianity from Eastern Europe and Southern European Catholics from Italy, Malta, Spain, Croatia and Poland.

Several factors explain changes to the Australian religious community:

• Immigration patterns
• Conversion between denominations
• Rise of New Age religions
• Growth of secularism
• Rise of atheism and non-religious worldviews
• Disenchantment with traditional religious institutions

Despite declining church attendance, Christianity remains reflected in Australian lifestyles, the legal and political system, and dominant culture. Declining attendance may result from an ageing population, limited Christian migrant intake, and disenchantment with institutional Christianity for various reasons (including scandals and conservative attitudes).

Immigration and religious diversity

Immigration has been extremely important in influencing Australia's religious profile since 1945. The Immigration Restriction Act 1901 (the 'White Australia policy') ensured that pre-1945 immigrants were primarily of white Anglo-Saxon origin.

Post-World War II (1945-1960s): Most migrants came from Europe and were Christian, including Italian Catholics and Orthodox Christians from Eastern Europe and Greece.

Vietnam War era (1970s): An influx of refugees from South-East Asia (known as 'boat people') brought religious diversity. Many Vietnamese were Buddhist, though some were Catholic due to French colonial influence. This coincided with the relaxing of the White Australia policy and the introduction of multiculturalism, which replaced the former policy of cultural assimilation.

Post-1972: After the complete abolition of the White Australia policy under Gough Whitlam's Labor government, there was steady immigration from diverse sources:

• Vietnam, Thailand, Cambodia (Buddhism and Hinduism)
• India and Fiji (Hinduism)
• Sri Lanka (Buddhism and Hinduism)
• Lebanon, Turkey, Indonesia, Bosnia (Islam)

Australia transformed from a multicultural society into a multi-faith society.

Hinduism in Australia

Early history: Hindus first came to Australia from what is now Indonesia as traders to northern Australia as early as a thousand years ago. After colonisation, they came as labourers (such as Fijian workers on Queensland sugar-cane fields), as itinerant traders throughout remote Australia, and as servants of British people who had lived in India.

Due to pre-Commonwealth immigration, in 1911 there were 4,106 'Hindoos' in Australia (a census classification that included Afghan Muslims, Punjabi Sikhs and Indian Hindus). By 1947, only 2,189 people identified as 'Indian', demonstrating the effectiveness of the White Australia policy.

Post-1972 growth: Since the abolition of the White Australia policy, there has been steady Hindu immigration, mainly from India, Sri Lanka and Fiji. These migrants are predominantly professionals and their families seeking to escape restrictions of the caste system, strict religious application, or civil war in Sri Lanka. India is now one of the highest source countries for migrants to Australia.

Western engagement: The International Society of Krishna Consciousness (Hare Krishnas) has introduced Hinduism to some Western Australians. The New Age movement has also introduced Hindu concepts and practices into mainstream Australian culture, including meditation, yoga, reincarnation and karma.

Census data: In 2016, Hindus comprised 1.9% of the population (440,300 people), an increase from 1.3% in 2011. Hinduism continues to be the fastest-growing religious tradition in Australia at 59.80% growth between 2011 and 2016.

Buddhism in Australia

Early presence: The earliest Buddhists in Australia were probably Chinese people who were part of the gold rushes of the 1850s. Many Chinese Australians practiced a diversity of religious expressions (including Confucianism, Daoism, ancestor worship and local deities) but were all classified as Buddhist.

Australian society had several prominent Buddhism sympathisers through the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, including Prime Minister Alfred Deakin, who was a former follower of the Theosophical Society. However, Deakin also supported the Immigration Restriction Act.

1970s growth: Buddhism grew significantly with the influx of Indo-Chinese refugees following the Vietnam War and communist victories in South-East Asia. This growth coincided with:

• Growing disenchantment with traditional Western organised religion
• Increasing interest in Eastern mysticism
• Rise of New Age spirituality (heavily influenced by Buddhism)

1980s onwards: The period saw renewed Buddhist evangelism, including temple construction (such as Nan Tien Temple near Wollongong), public seminars, and visits by the Tibetan leader-in-exile, the Dalai Lama. His Holiness the XIV Dalai Lama is a popular speaker in Australia, often galvanising support for the Free Tibet movement.

Contemporary appeal: Buddhism appeals to Western Australians for several reasons:

• Environmental concern
• Value given to life
• Vegetarianism and related concepts
• Meditation practices
• Atheistic individualism underlying Buddhist philosophy

Buddhist groups often seek to build temples and invite monks that reflect their particular cultural roots.

Census data: Buddhism grew rapidly from 1.9% in 2001 to 2.5% in 2011, though it dropped slightly to 2.4% in 2016 (563,674 people). It remains one of the largest religious traditions after Christianity and has the most appeal to the Western population of Australia among non-Christian traditions.

Islam in Australia

Current status: Islam is the second-largest religious tradition in Australia after Christianity. In 2016, there were more than 600,000 Muslims (604,242), comprising 2.6% of the population. They come from all over the world and virtually every continent. Most Muslims live in Sydney or Melbourne, with concentrations in certain suburbs where mosques have been built, such as:

• Gallipoli Mosque in Auburn (by Turkish Australians)
• Lakemba Mosque in Sydney (by Lebanese Australians)
• Preston Mosque in Melbourne

Early history: Islam may have been the first monotheistic religious tradition to come to Australia. As early as the mid-eighteenth century, fishermen from Macassar (southern Sulawesi, in modern Indonesia) visited the north and west Australian coasts. There is evidence that worship in Cape York includes reference to the Arabic term for God, Allah.

From the mid-nineteenth century, experienced camel drivers were brought into Australia, mainly from north-west India and Afghanistan, to aid expansion into central Australia.

Post-World War II: Migration brought Muslims as well as Christians from countries such as Turkey and Lebanon. Since the abolition of the White Australia policy and the influx of refugees from the Middle East since the late 1970s, Muslim numbers have increased significantly. Migrants have come as refugees from conflicts in Afghanistan, Iraq, Lebanon and the former Yugoslavia, as well as through general migration from these countries plus Turkey, Pakistan and Indonesia.

Challenges and tensions: Several factors have made acceptance more difficult:

• Ongoing conflict between Western nations and parts of the Arab world
• Popular media identification of Muslims as 'enemies of the West or Christianity'
• Internal conflicts within the Muslim community
• Misunderstandings about distinctive dress (such as the hijab or headscarf)
• Emergence of extremist groups (such as Islamic State)
• Events such as the Cronulla riots of December 2005

Denominational switching

Denominational switching refers to the exchange of church members between different Christian denominations. For example, a Protestant Christian from the Anglican Church might choose to join a Uniting Church service because the style of worship and attitudes of the congregation are preferable. While this switching sometimes occurs, adherence to Christianity in general continues its slow decline.

Anglican to Pentecostal movement

In the 2016 census, Anglican identification continued to drop (15.7% decline from 2011), while Pentecostal identification slightly increased (9.5% growth). Part of this shift results from some Anglicans choosing to join Pentecostal services.

Pentecostal churches are predominantly regional churches. However, Pentecostal Christian beliefs and values in some circles may be considered relatively conservative, for example regarding gender identity and relationships.

Church response: This issue has raised serious concerns in many church hierarchies, and considerable thought has been given to addressing these issues to counter the possible demise of some denominational structures.

The term 'denominational switching' has also been applied to other religious traditions, such as those who change from Orthodox to Progressive Judaism.

The rise of New Age religions

The 1960s saw a strong reaction to post-war prosperity and generally conservative attitudes found in most Western cultures. This coincided with:

• Beginnings of awareness of different religious traditions
• The globalised world and ease of travel
• New forms of global communication
• Lessening of commitment to traditional structures such as Christian churches

Although many New Age religions (such as paganism, Wicca, the self-improvement movement and the Children of God) do not feature in great numbers in the census, they are part of a wider movement of interest towards non-Western or non-mainstream religions.

While New Age religions were regarded as fringe groups in the 1970s, their ideas and practices are now firmly entrenched and accepted in Australian society. These include:

• Meditation
• Holistic medicine
• The human potential movement
• Vegetarianism
• Environmentalism

Secularism

Secularism believes that religion should be kept separate and distinct from society. A significant number of Australians are not religious, and that number is growing.

More people are deciding that religion is irrelevant to their lives and are choosing to replace traditional religions with other worldviews or have no religion at all.

Census data: Those unaffiliated to a religion, or who identified with secular (such as atheism) or other spiritual beliefs (such as New Age), increased to 30.1% of the population in 2016. This represents significant growth from 16.6% in 1996.

Religious dialogue in multi-faith Australia

Since 1945, religious denominations have sought to break down barriers that separate them. These barriers came from the sectarianism of previous years and the suspicion with which other religious traditions were regarded. In modern multicultural Australia, denominations cannot easily ignore each other. This has taken the form of ecumenism and interfaith dialogue, which emphasise commonality rather than differences.

Ecumenical movements

Ecumenism has developed as a growing movement for several reasons:

• Rural towns growing smaller, requiring churches to work cooperatively and share resources
• Less emphasis in Australian society on denominational difference
• Growing belief in the need to emphasise Christian unity
• Part of a changing ethos in Australia and across the world

Early attempts: One of the earliest attempts to develop ecumenism was the Anglican-Roman Catholic International Commission (ARCIC) that began meetings in 1967. The World Council of Churches was established in 1948 following World War II.

National Council of Churches in Australia (NCCA)

The NCCA was formed in 1994, growing from several ecumenical organisations such as the Australian Council of Churches (ACC). It has a number of departments that foster cooperation between churches at formal and informal levels.

NSW Ecumenical Council (NSWEC)

The NSWEC was established in 1982 (with origins in 1946) to give churches a shared voice when following their religious beliefs and undertakings in New South Wales.

Key activities:

• Encouraging pursuit of social justice
• Operating cooperative charity events
• Community projects such as helping settle refugees and providing accommodation to the poor
• Many initiatives done in cooperation with the NCCA

A central tenet is the idea of unity between those who believe in God, allowing churches to focus on their Christian duties rather than competing with one another.

Uniting Church in Australia (UCA)

The formation of the Uniting Church in Australia on 22 June 1977 is one concrete example of ecumenism at work in a formal sense. The UCA brought together the Methodist Church, Presbyterian Church and Congregational Union.

Key features:

• Developed liturgies that reflect its Australian context
• Encouraged social justice programs
• Sought to minister to different cultural communities
• Supported those discriminated against in Australian society, including:
  • Women (now in positions of leadership)
  • Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples
  • The LGBTQIA community

Local level ecumenism

Much of the move towards ecumenism is formalised at official church levels, but significant work also occurs at local levels, often unacknowledged at official or national levels. Examples include:

• Cooperative teaching of special religious education in schools
• National Church Life Survey
• Academic institutions such as the Australian College of Theology
• Nungalinya College in Darwin, which trains Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander clergy for Catholic, Uniting, Lutheran and Anglican churches

Interfaith dialogue

The years since World War II have seen the Australian community reassess its attitudes towards religious traditions other than Christianity. Even Christian churches have reconsidered their long-held view that other religions are errors or the work of the Devil.

Much interfaith dialogue occurs at an official level, with groups such as the NCCA involved in discussions with official bodies representing other religious traditions.

Academic and educational initiatives:

• In 2007, the Australian National University hosted an interfaith dialogue symposium during the Dalai Lama's visit
• Association for Studies of Religion – supports teaching of Studies of Religion in schools and regularly organises teachers' workshops with speakers from various religious traditions
• Provision of Studies of Religion in the NSW Higher School Certificate is itself an example of interfaith dialogue

In modern Australia, it is expected that religious traditions will find opportunities to maintain open dialogue in a multicultural and multi-faith society. Interfaith dialogue often takes place in Australian communities at an informal level, seeking understanding and mutual respect. The dialogue seeks to affirm the desire for peace, human dignity and the sanctity of human life, transcending the particular interests of any one religious tradition.

Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples' spirituality and reconciliation

Reconciliation refers to the acknowledgement by various groups in Australia of the great injustices done to Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples and the dispossession that occurred in the past. It also expresses willingness and commitment to rectify these wrongs and, where possible, to improve the position of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples in the future.

Reconciliation Australia

After the Council for Aboriginal Reconciliation ended in December 2000, Reconciliation Australia was established to provide an ongoing national effort for reconciliation.

Aims and vision:

• Encourage and form stronger relationships for all Australians
• Vision for Australia to be a country that guarantees equal life chance for all
• Recognition and respect for the important contribution, place and culture of the first Australians
• Remove the obvious gap in life expectancy between wider Australian and Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander children

Structure: The board of directors comprises people from the wider Australian community and Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples. These are esteemed leaders in their respective fields driven to foster reconciliation in Australia. As a non-profit and independent body, their ambition is ambitious and focused on practical outcomes.

Religious tradition involvement

Reconciliation has become an important expression of spirituality in Australia, especially as religious traditions recognise the mistakes of the past.

Other religious traditions: Have also actively supported reconciliation, including:

• Jewish leaders
• Federation of Islamic Councils
• Buddhist Peace Fellowship
• Vishva Hindu Praishad

Key moments and initiatives

1996 meeting: Leaders of Catholic and Anglican churches, along with other Christian and Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander leaders, met with the Australian Government to call for reconciliation. Though largely ignored officially by the government, Christians and other religious leaders forged ahead, providing examples of leadership to the nation's leaders.

Contemporary recognition: Recognition of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples' rights now includes:

• Welcome to Country ceremonies
• Use of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples' symbols in church services and religious celebrations
• Smoking ceremonies
• Acknowledgement of the Dreaming

It is significant that the oldest inhabitants of this land are part of this changing life and faith, and that recognition is given to the implications of the Dreaming.