Argument and Persuasive Language (VCE SSCE English): Revision Notes
Argument and persuasive language
When writers construct arguments, they aim to convince their intended readers to accept a particular viewpoint. This is achieved through a carefully structured approach that combines an overarching contention with various supporting arguments, tailored language, and an appropriate tone. The ultimate goal is to present the writer's opinion as logical and reasonable whilst portraying opposing views as weak or flawed.
Understanding the main features of persuasive writing will help you analyse how writers present their points of view and enable you to create your own effective persuasive texts.
The key concepts of argument
A writer's point of view is built through an argument, which comprises three essential elements. First, there is the writer's contention, which is their main viewpoint on the topic being discussed. This summarises their overall opinion on the issue at hand. Second, the argument includes supporting points that are developed logically to justify and strengthen the contention. Third, these supporting points are backed up with evidence that validates the claims being made.
Understanding contention versus argument
It's essential to recognise the difference between a contention and an argument. A contention is simply a statement of opinion, whilst an argument provides the reasoning and justification for that opinion.
For example, if a writer states 'The Australian government should be doing more to combat climate change', this is their contention. However, the argument must explain why this is the case by providing supporting reasons and evidence.
Distinguishing Opinion from Argument
Consider these two statements:
- 'It's not good enough that politicians aren't doing anything about climate change' – this is merely another opinion statement that reinforces the contention
- 'The current energy policies are not evolving quickly enough to keep up with the changes in our climate' – this presents a clear reason explaining why the government's efforts are inadequate
Developing supporting points
If the contention raises questions for readers, the supporting points should provide answers to these questions. Using the climate change example, possible supporting arguments might include:
- Government policies are not changing at an appropriate rate
- There are insufficient options available for using renewable energy sources
- The frequency of climate-related natural disasters is increasing
Structure and sequence
The sequence and structure of an argument are equally important. Writers develop their arguments progressively and purposefully, ensuring they build upon their ideas to create a measured, logical viewpoint. Structuring a piece with clear intent supports the writer's attempt to persuade their audience effectively.
Exam tip: When analysing persuasive texts, look for how the writer builds their argument across the entire piece, not just individual paragraphs.
Issue and context
What is an issue?
When analysing a persuasive text, you need to identify what issue or topic the writer is debating or expressing a view about. The issue is the subject matter that has prompted the writer to present their argument.
For example, climate change might be a broad issue, whilst a more specific issue could be the need for human behaviour to change in order to address climate change.
Understanding context
The context is equally important and can be thought of as the set of events and decisions that have given rise to both the issue and the writer's decision to enter the debate.
Using the climate change example, the context might be that the government has withdrawn previously promised policies to tackle climate change. This withdrawal has prompted the writer to respond.
The context also includes the mode and medium of publication. An editorial in The Age newspaper published on the same day as a speech delivered at a public forum will share the same broad context, but the arguments presented and the language used will differ based on these different publication contexts.
Why context matters
Understanding context helps you:
- Interpret why the writer chose to write at this particular time
- Recognise what events or decisions prompted the piece
- Understand the writer's choice of language and approach
- Identify the intended audience more accurately
Identifying the contention
Where to find the contention
Once you've established the issue and context, the contention becomes easier to locate. It commonly appears in the early stages of the piece, often within the first two paragraphs. The title or headline may also allude to or directly state the contention. Additionally, writers frequently reiterate their contention at the conclusion of their text, which serves as another useful reference point when analysing persuasive pieces.
Explicit versus implicit contentions
The contention might be stated explicitly (directly and clearly) or implicitly (suggested through various elements working together).
Explicit Contention Example:
A total ban on plastic straws is unfair to people with complex medical needs.
This directly states what the writer believes.
Implicit Contention Example:
Disposable plastic straws enable people with complex medical needs to safely enjoy drinks without assistance, but straws made from sustainable alternatives, such as paper, provide challenges.
This suggests the contention through describing the situation rather than stating an opinion outright. The writer's supporting points, selection of evidence, and tone work together to imply the contention.
Differentiating contention from supporting points
When analysing texts, you need to distinguish the contention from the supporting points in order to provide a clear, well-defined contention statement in your analysis. The contention is the overarching viewpoint, whilst supporting points are the specific reasons that justify this viewpoint.
Learning aid: Think of the contention as the 'what' (what does the writer believe?) and the supporting points as the 'why' (why do they believe this?).
Purpose and audience
Understanding purpose
The purpose of a text is the reason the persuasive piece has been produced and what the writer's desired outcomes are. Put simply, it's what the writer wants their audience to think, feel, or do after reading or hearing their argument.
Examples of purposes include:
- To influence the audience to take specific action on an issue
- To convince the audience to adopt a particular position or viewpoint
- To lead the audience to contemplate a moral or ethical concern
- To change the audience's behaviour or attitudes
Identifying the intended audience
The purpose connects closely to the writer's intended audience, which refers to the group of people the piece is aimed at and whom the writer wishes to influence. The audience might be an individual (such as a specific writer being responded to) or a large group who have experience with a particular issue.
Writers should have a strong understanding of their target audience so they can develop their argument to deliberately appeal to that audience. Language choices, examples used, and the level of formality will all be shaped by the intended audience.
Stakeholders in persuasive writing
Sometimes the writer is a stakeholder in the issue, meaning someone who is directly affected by the issue and has a vested interest in its outcome. When a text is written by a stakeholder, this can affect how you interpret the argument.
Stakeholder texts may be viewed as:
- Potentially misleading or unreliable due to self-interest – the writer might have a powerful emotional attachment to the issue, or perhaps they stand to benefit financially from a particular outcome
- Possessing in-depth or expert knowledge – their direct involvement with the issue may enhance the weight and credibility of their argument
Stakeholder Perspective Example:
A supporter of the Greens political party might write an opinion piece strongly objecting to the lack of government policy on climate change, whilst the CEO of a coal-mining organisation could respond in support of the government, as the lack of progress may mean their industry remains viable for longer.
Both are stakeholders whose arguments will be well-informed but also heavily influenced by their professional affiliations and responsibilities.
Exam tip: Always consider the writer's identity and potential stake in the issue when analysing their argument. This helps you understand potential biases and motivations.
Counterarguments
What are counterarguments?
An effective persuasive text includes counterarguments as part of a well-rounded argument. Counterarguments enable the writer to acknowledge opposing viewpoints and then argue against them. This technique serves multiple purposes in strengthening a persuasive piece.
A good counterargument:
- Enhances the writer's credibility by demonstrating their knowledge of the issue
- Strengthens their argument by exposing weaknesses in alternative viewpoints
- Shows the audience that the writer has considered multiple perspectives before forming their opinion
Where counterarguments appear
A counterargument can be positioned at different places within a persuasive text, and this placement is strategic.
At the end of the piece: The writer may present counterarguments after establishing their own position and argument. This approach enables them to reaffirm their contention in a final statement, leaving the audience with a clear sense of why alternative views are inadequate.
At the beginning: Counterarguments may be included in the initial stages of the argument. This approach is often used in shorter pieces or direct responses to a point of view, such as in letters to the editor. It allows the writer to immediately position their argument against an existing viewpoint.
How counterarguments work
A counterargument typically involves the writer pinpointing and exposing flaws in specific elements of an opposing argument. This might include:
- Identifying questionable underlying assumptions
- Challenging the quality or reliability of supporting evidence
- Highlighting logical inconsistencies in the opposing viewpoint
An opposing argument can also be refuted through a direct attack on an opposing party, using emotive language to discredit those who argue for an alternative point of view. The aim of this approach is for the writer to present themselves as having the most reliable opinion on the issue whilst painting the opposition as an inferior source.
Exam tip: When analysing counterarguments, identify not just what opposing view is being addressed, but also how the writer dismisses or refutes it.
Tone
What is tone?
The tone of a writer's language conveys their attitude towards the idea or issue they are discussing. Rather than thinking of tone as a technique, consider it to be the emotion or feeling that underpins the writer's points. The tone is likely to shift throughout the text as the writer considers various aspects of the issue and the arguments on either side.
How tone is created
In written texts, tone is created through vocabulary choices and phrases. The specific words a writer selects, and the way they construct their sentences, communicate their attitude.
In spoken texts, tone is also created through:
- The speaker's voice, including rhythm, emphasis, and intonation
- Physical elements such as gestures and facial expressions
- Pace and volume of speech
Types of tone and their purposes
Different types of tone are relevant to different approaches within an argument. The tone a writer employs depends on what they're trying to achieve at that point in their argument.
Tone Types and Their Purposes:
- An angry, attacking tone might be used when disagreeing with another writer or expert, showing strong disapproval
- An optimistic tone can be used to inspire hope in an audience and motivate them toward positive action
- A cautionary tone might be employed to warn readers about potential consequences
When analysing tone, it's helpful to think about the adjectives the writer has used and the connotations associated with these words. Are the words chosen positive, negative, or neutral? What feelings do they evoke?
Tone shifts
A shift in tone can be observed when a writer aims to engage their audience through different points of argument. This shift is deliberate and serves a persuasive purpose.
Tone Shift Example:
A text about the negative effects of junk food might begin with a mocking tone that condemns stopping for fast food on the way home from work. This creates a sense of disapproval and perhaps even ridicule.
However, the piece may end with a cautionary tone that highlights the long-term health implications of junk food consumption. This shift from mockery to serious warning intensifies the message and appeals to the audience's sense of self-preservation.
Analysing tone effectively
To analyse tone effectively:
- Identify specific words and phrases that create the tone
- Label the connotations of key words (positive, negative, or neutral)
- Explain how the tone supports the writer's purpose at that point in the argument
- Note where tone shifts occur and explain the effect of these shifts
- Consider how tone works together with other persuasive techniques
Exam tip: Don't just identify the tone – always explain its effect on the audience and how it supports the writer's argument.
Remember!
Key Points to Remember:
- An argument consists of a contention (main viewpoint), supporting points (reasons), and evidence (facts and examples)
- The contention can be explicit (directly stated) or implicit (suggested through various elements)
- Understanding issue and context is essential before analysing any persuasive text
- The purpose is what the writer wants the audience to think, feel, or do, whilst the audience is the specific group being targeted
- Counterarguments strengthen a piece by acknowledging and refuting opposing views, enhancing the writer's credibility
- Tone conveys the writer's attitude and often shifts throughout a text to engage the audience at different stages of the argument
- Always consider whether the writer is a stakeholder (someone with a vested interest in the issue), as this affects interpretation