Moral, Ethical, Legal, and Cultural Issues (AQA A-Level Computer Science): Revision Notes

Moral, Ethical, Legal, and Cultural Issues

Introduction

We are currently experiencing a technological revolution that has fundamentally transformed how we interact with computers and technology. Over recent decades, there have been significant developments in computer science that have changed not only how people use technology, but also how information is managed and even how we conduct our daily lives. These technological advances have brought about numerous moral, social, legal and cultural issues that affect us both as individuals in society and as computer science professionals.

Technological change

To understand the scale of change, let's examine the major innovations that have occurred over the past 30 years:

• 1985 – Network file systems were developed, enabling computers to share files across networks
• 1989 – Tim Berners-Lee invented the World Wide Web, creating the foundation for the modern Internet
• 1991 – Linus Torvalds created Linux, an open-source operating system
• 1993 – Email adoption became widespread, changing business communication forever
• 1997 – Broadband Internet became available to home users, dramatically increasing connection speeds
• 1998 – Google was developed, revolutionising how we search for information
• 1999 – WiFi became a recognised standard, enabling wireless connectivity
• 2004 – Facebook was founded, ushering in the social media era
• 2005 – YouTube was founded, making video sharing accessible to everyone
• 2006 – Twitter was created, introducing microblogging
• 2010 – Apple unveiled the iPad, popularising tablet computing

Alongside these software and service innovations, hardware technology has advanced remarkably quickly. Back in 1985, when the first network file systems were created, computers were mainly found in business offices and large organisations. During the 1990s, personal computers began appearing in homes. Today, typical home users own multiple wireless devices that connect seamlessly to home networks and the Internet. The development of 4G telecommunications means we now live in an "always connected" society where information is constantly at our fingertips.

These changes have created enormous opportunities for individuals and organisations working in computing and related fields:

• Five of the world's 25 wealthiest companies are IT businesses
• The founders of Google and Facebook have each accumulated billions of pounds in personal wealth, despite their companies only starting in 1998 and 2004 respectively
• Lesser-known businesses like Dropcam and Skybox Imaging have been sold to Google for over $500 million US dollars, even though they only started in 2009
• IT managers and directors consistently appear in the top ten list of best-paid jobs in the UK
• Programmers can earn over $60,000 annually

Moral and ethical issues

Understanding morals and ethics

A moral issue concerns our individual behaviour and our personal understanding of right and wrong. We learn our moral values from various sources including our parents, teachers and peers, and we develop them through our own experiences. Ethics differ slightly from morals in that they represent a way of defining a set of moral values or principles that guide how people within society live. Ethical issues are sometimes called social issues because they affect society as a whole.

As A-Level students, you need to understand these issues and recognise their implications. One of the most significant issues in computing today is the widespread collection and potential misuse of personal data.

The use and misuse of personal data

The collection, use and potential misuse of personal data has become one of the most discussed topics in computer science. Most organisations collect data continuously, and much of this information is personal in nature. At a basic level, this might include name and address details, but it often extends to include information about individuals' finances, health, relationship status, family circumstances, employment history and even their personal views and opinions.

This data collection presents several important issues:

Personal privacy: Large amounts of data are collected routinely, and individuals may not have explicitly consented to this data being collected and used. Often, people are unaware of just how much information organisations hold about them.

Data security: Much of the collected data is stored online or on networks connected to the Internet. This raises the question: how can we be confident that this data is safe from unauthorised users? With increasing numbers of high-profile data breaches, this concern is very real.

Misuse of data: Data collected for one specific purpose may be used for a completely different purpose. In many cases, personal data are sold to other organisations without the individual's knowledge or consent.

'Big Brother' concerns: Many people worry that personal data is being used by government agencies to monitor individuals, representing a breach of basic human rights. The term "Big Brother" comes from George Orwell's novel "1984" and refers to constant government surveillance.

Online profiles: Every time you do anything online – whether using social media or contributing to online forums – that data may remain online for years and contribute to what people know about you. Your digital footprint can follow you throughout your life.

Profiling: Large organisations often accumulate data to build comprehensive profiles of individuals. This profiling could have negative impacts on a person's opportunities and circumstances.

Banking case studies

To illustrate both the benefits and risks of technology, let's consider online banking:

Other moral and social issues

Beyond personal data concerns, there are numerous other moral and ethical issues in computer science:

Unauthorised access: Hackers gain access to computer systems for various reasons. While hacking for the purpose of committing fraud is widely considered wrong, there are groups of people called ethical hackers who claim they hack to expose weaknesses in system security. These individuals argue that their actions are for the good of society by helping organisations improve their security. This raises interesting ethical questions about whether the ends justify the means.

Unauthorised use of software: There are different perspectives on software piracy. Some people believe that software companies and programmers invest significant time developing programs and should be fairly rewarded for their work. Others argue that software is too expensive, requires too many updates, and that software companies are exploitative. From this viewpoint, downloading or copying software without paying is considered morally defensible. This debate continues to be contentious in the computing community.

Inappropriate behaviour: Evidence suggests that people's behaviour changes when they are online. In the worst cases, this can lead to online bullying, trolling and other forms of abuse that may then spread into the physical world. The anonymity and distance that the Internet provides can sometimes bring out the worst in people.

Inappropriate content: A significant amount of content on the Internet would be considered inappropriate by most people. This includes pornography, violence, and sites promoting religious or ethnic hatred. While these sites may not be illegal in all jurisdictions, there is concern about their effect on society, particularly on younger people who may be exposed to such content.

Freedom of speech: Some people believe you should be able to say whatever you like, even if it offends others. The Internet gives almost everyone the ability to express their views freely. This raises the issue of whether there should be some code of behaviour that all Internet users should follow when expressing their views, or whether complete freedom of speech should be protected.

Unemployment: A broader social issue relates to the impact of new technology on people's working lives. For example, many businesses such as retail shops and banks no longer need to employ as many people in their physical stores and branches, as customers can now access services online. On the other hand, they may create more jobs in IT departments for employees working on their digital businesses. This shift in employment patterns affects communities and individuals differently.

Access to the Internet: It is difficult to know exactly how many people have access to the Internet. Some estimates suggest there are 2.5 billion Internet users worldwide. With a global population of 7 billion people, this means only around 35% of the world's population has Internet access. An estimated 15% of the UK population does not have Internet access. This raises questions about whether these individuals are disadvantaged by their lack of connectivity.

Code of conduct

When you are using your own computer at home, you make your own moral decisions about these issues. However, when you are using a computer in a school, college or any other organisation, you normally have to agree to a code of conduct.

The British Computer Society (BCS) has produced both a code of conduct and a code of ethics that guide individuals and organisations on the ethical use of computer systems in general, including Internet usage. Observing the code is a condition of membership to the society. Although it is not legally enforceable, any breaches of the code could lead to dismissal of an employee or a student being asked to leave a college. The codes apply to users of computer systems and also to programmers and developers who create computer systems.

Legal issues

Overview of legal framework

As AS- and A-Level students, you are not expected to learn every detail of all the Acts of Parliament listed in this section. However, you may be asked to consider legal issues in a legal context in your examination, so it is important to have a good understanding of the current legal framework and how it relates to computing.

Legal issues refer to those matters where a law has been passed by the government. Very few Acts of Parliament are specific to computing. The two main ones are the Data Protection Act and the Computer Misuse Act. Additionally, the Freedom of Information Act, the Regulation of Investigatory Powers Act, and the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are particularly relevant to computing.

Legislators and law enforcement agencies face two main challenges:

Geographical limitations: Most UK laws only apply within the UK. With the global nature of the Internet, it can be difficult to prove where a particular offence took place. Additionally, if the perpetrator breaks a UK law but they are based in another country, it can be very difficult to prosecute them. Different countries have different laws, so there is no universal way of regulating the computer industry or the Internet.

Constant change: Many laws are introduced in response to current events. As technology develops so rapidly, laws often become out of date quite quickly. The Computer Misuse Act is a good example of this, as it was introduced before the widespread adoption of the Internet and has struggled to keep pace with modern cyber-crime.

Data Protection Act

The Data Protection Act was first introduced in 1984 as a result of public concerns about the increasing use of computers to store personal information. It has since been updated several times to reflect the enormous changes in how information is used, particularly during the 1990s and beyond. The Act places controls on organisations and individuals that store personal data electronically. Personal data is defined as any information about an individual where the person (known as the data subject) is alive and can be individually identified.

The Act states that, with a few exemptions, any person or organisation storing personal data must register with the Information Commissioner. The term "Information Commissioner" can be confusing because it refers to both an actual person and the organisation that they run. The organisation itself is independent but was set up by the government to oversee Data Protection and Freedom of Information regulations.

There are eight main principles behind the Data Protection Act. Anyone processing personal data must comply with these eight enforceable principles of good practice. They state that data must be:

1. Fairly and lawfully processed – obtained and used in a fair and legal manner
2. Processed for limited purposes – only used for the specific purpose for which it was collected
3. Adequate, relevant and not excessive – only the necessary information should be collected
4. Accurate – data must be correct and kept up to date
5. Not kept longer than necessary – data should be deleted when it is no longer needed
6. Processed in accordance with the data subject's rights – individuals have rights over their own data
7. Secure – appropriate security measures must be in place
8. Not transferred to countries without adequate data protection – data should not be sent to countries with weaker data protection laws

Freedom of Information Act

The Freedom of Information Act extends the subject access rights of the Data Protection Act and gives general rights of access to information held by public authorities such as hospitals, doctors, dentists, the police, schools and colleges. Both Acts are overseen by the Information Commissioner.

The Act gives individuals access to both personal and non-personal data held by public authorities. The idea behind the Act was to provide more openness between the public and government agencies. Therefore, the agencies are obliged to give the public access to information and to respond to individual requests for information. Much of this communication is now done through websites and email.

Computer Misuse Act

The Computer Misuse Act was introduced primarily to prevent hacking and contains three specific offences relating to computer usage:

1. Unauthorised access to computer programs or data: This includes various forms of hacking, such as breaking through password protection and firewalls, decrypting files, and stealing another user's identity. This is the basic offence of unauthorised access.

2. Unauthorised access with further criminal intent: This is an extension of the first offence where there is a clear intention to carry out a further criminal act, such as fraud or a copyright breach. The penalties for this offence are more severe.

3. Unauthorised modification of computer material: This includes falsifying bank details or exam grades, spreading viruses designed to corrupt data and programs, and interfering with system files. This offence covers any deliberate alteration of data or programs without permission.

There have been some amendments to the Act, and there is ongoing pressure on the government from the computer industry and other businesses operating on the Internet to introduce new laws that reflect the current activities of cyber-criminals and are better suited to the modern digital landscape.

Regulation of Investigatory Powers (RIP) Act

The RIP Act was introduced to clarify the powers that government agencies have when investigating crime or suspected crime. While it is not specific to computing, it was introduced partly to take account of changes in communication technology and the widespread use of the Internet.

There are five main parts to the Act. The most relevant parts to computing are:

• Part 1: Relates to the interception of communications, including electronic data
• Part 3: Covers the investigation of electronic data protected by encryption

In simple terms, the Act gives the police and other law enforcement agencies the right to intercept communications where there is suspicion of criminal activity. They also have the right to decipher encrypted data, even if this means that the user must tell the police how to decrypt the data. This represents a significant power for law enforcement.

Copyright, Designs and Patents Act

This Act gives rights to the creators of certain kinds of material, allowing them control over how their material is used. The law covers the copying, adapting and renting of materials.

The law covers all types of materials, but those of particular relevance to computing are:

• Original works including instruction manuals, computer programs and some types of databases
• Web content
• Original musical works
• Sound recordings
• Films and videos

Copyright applies to all works regardless of the format. Consequently, work produced on the Internet is also covered by copyright. It is illegal to produce pirate copies of software or run more versions on a network than have been paid for. It is an offence to adapt existing versions of software without permission. It is also an offence to download music or films without the permission of the copyright holder.

In computing, two techniques are commonly used to protect copyright:

Digital Rights Management (DRM): This uses access control software to limit the way in which users can control, use, copy, print or edit digital content that they have bought. For example, e-books might be limited in how many times they can be copied or which devices they can be read on.

Licensing: Normally used for software, this provides users with a paper-based or digital proof that they have purchased software legally. The licence details what they are allowed to do with the software. For example, some software licences allow installation on multiple devices, while others restrict use to a single computer.

Other acts relevant to computing

Other pieces of legislation that are particularly relevant to computing include:

• The Official Secrets Act: Prevents the disclosure of government data relating to national security
• The Defamation Act: Prevents people from making untrue statements about others which will lead to their reputation being damaged
• The Obscene Publications Act and the Protection of Children Act: Prevent people from disseminating pornographic or violent images
• The Health and Safety (Display Screen Equipment) Regulations: Provides regulation on the correct use of screens and is a specific addition to the Health and Safety at Work Act, which contains more general regulation on keeping employees safe
• The Equality Act: Makes it illegal to discriminate against anyone on the grounds of sex, sexual orientation, ethnicity, religion, disability or age. This includes the dissemination of derogatory material online

Cultural issues

Cultural issues encompass all of the factors that influence the beliefs, attitudes and actions of people within society. Common cultural influences include family, the media, politics, economics and religion. There are cultural differences between different groups of people. For example, people from different countries often have different cultural norms and expectations.

There are several elements of computer use that have a cultural impact, as they can change our attitudes, beliefs and actions:

Over-use of data: There are fears that we are becoming completely dependent on data. Information about us is being collected by every single organisation we deal with, including government agencies and businesses. Many decisions about how the country is run are based on data analysis. This dependency on data-driven decision-making is changing how society functions.

Invasive technologies: A significant amount of data is collected without our explicit consent. Satellite images and Google Street View enable anyone to look at your house. Property websites like Zoopla tell everyone how much you paid for it. These technologies, while useful, represent an invasion of privacy that previous generations never experienced.

Over-reliance on computers: What happens when computer systems fail? At a simple level, you might lose some data on your personal computer. At a more serious level, people may be in physical danger or even die as a result of computer failure. For example, if hospital systems fail, patient care could be compromised. If air traffic control systems fail, flight safety is at risk. Our increasing dependence on computer systems makes us vulnerable.

Over-reliance on technology companies: According to some sources, two-thirds of all Internet searches are conducted through Google. That represents around 115 billion searches per month. Wikipedia often appears on the front page of search results. This gives these two organisations massive influence over the information we access and, by extension, how we understand the world. A handful of technology companies have enormous power to shape public knowledge and opinion.

'Big brother' culture: The original meaning of "big brother" is the idea that the government is watching everything we do and that we have to modify our behaviour to meet expected standards. With the increasing use of CCTV cameras, the desire for national identity cards, and the monitoring of emails and mobile phone calls, some people believe that we are heading in that direction. The balance between security and privacy is a constant cultural debate.

Globalisation: As we become more connected to other cultures through technology, we are more likely to be influenced by them. For example, many individuals and organisations use technology to try and influence debates on religion and politics. Social media enables ideas and cultural movements to spread rapidly across borders, changing how cultures interact and evolve.

Remember!