Context (AQA A-Level English Literature A): Revision Notes

Context

What context means for your exam

Understanding context is crucial for your A-Level English Literature studies. This aspect of your learning addresses Assessment Objective 3 (AO3), which focuses on how you demonstrate an understanding of the importance and impact of the contexts surrounding literary texts. Across your two exam papers, context accounts for approximately 24% of the total marks, making it a significant component that should not be overlooked.

When examiners assess your work, they are looking for you to show comprehension of how the ideas within a text relate to the context in which it was written and received. Context encompasses a variety of different factors that influence both the creation and interpretation of literary works.

Types of context to consider

Context can include several different elements:

• Author's background and life: Details about Shakespeare's personal experiences, education, and career can illuminate aspects of his work
• Historical context: The time period in which the author lived and wrote, as well as the historical setting of the text itself if different
• Reception history: How the text was received when first published or performed, and how responses have changed over time
• Literary contexts: The genres and literary traditions the author engages with. For Othello, Shakespeare employs the conventions of Greek tragedy
• Audience engagement: How different audiences through the ages have interpreted the text. This is particularly relevant for Shakespeare's plays, which are over 400 years old. Victorian audiences, for instance, would have had vastly different perspectives compared to contemporary viewers
• Performance history: For plays, this includes how the work was originally staged and how various productions have interpreted it differently over time

Exam tip: Using context effectively

Context is assessed throughout your exam responses. You need a thorough knowledge of a text's context to understand it fully. This is especially important for Shakespeare's plays, written in the late 16th and early 17th centuries - a period very different from our own. Understanding what Shakespeare's original audience would have known or been thinking about helps you develop a more sophisticated understanding of the text and make sense of references within it.

Background information

Shakespeare's life

William Shakespeare is widely regarded as England's most celebrated playwright and one of the greatest poets in history. Despite his global reputation and profound influence on writing and culture worldwide, relatively little is known about his personal background and life.

Shakespeare was born in April 1564 in Stratford-upon-Avon (his birthday is celebrated on 23rd April, though the exact date remains unknown). His parents were glove-maker John Shakespeare and his wife, Mary. During his childhood, he would have attended the grammar school in his borough, where he would have studied Latin and read classical writers such as Virgil and Ovid, and engaged with some drama. The influence of these classical writers is evident throughout his plays and sonnets. At 18, he married Anne Hathaway, a woman from a nearby village. He died in 1616, also on 23rd April, aged 52.

At some point, Shakespeare moved to London and established himself as a playwright by 1592. He wrote plays for the acting company known as the Lord Chamberlain's Men (later renamed the King's Men when King James I became their patron). The leading actor of this company was Richard Burbage, and Shakespeare remained with this troupe for nearly 20 years.

Shakespeare's plays are generally categorised into three genres: Histories (such as Henry V), Tragedies (such as Othello), and Comedies (such as A Midsummer Night's Dream). The first recorded performance of Othello took place in 1604, and scholars generally believe it was written in 1603.

The Renaissance period

Theatre performances were an extremely popular form of entertainment during the late Elizabethan and early Jacobean periods. Queen Elizabeth I herself was a generous patron of the arts, and Shakespeare's company was frequently invited to perform at court for her in the 1590s.

Shakespeare was writing during the English Renaissance, a period spanning from the 15th through to the mid-17th century. The Renaissance was a cultural movement that witnessed the flourishing of Latin and Ancient Greek philosophies and knowledge throughout Western Europe. Shakespeare incorporates Renaissance ideas extensively in his work. He draws upon Greek and Roman classical writing in his use of genre and literary references, and he explores the psychology of his characters in considerable depth (this psychological focus was characteristic of the Renaissance period).

The flourishing of literature and culture is also evident in the rich vocabulary of Shakespeare's writing. Many words and phrases appear in written form for the first time in Shakespeare's works. Whilst this does not necessarily mean he invented these phrases himself, it demonstrates the development and flourishing of language during this period.

Shakespeare's sources for Othello

Despite Shakespeare's fame as a playwright, he drew much of the inspiration for his plots from older sources. The main story of Othello originates from Gli Hecatommithi by Cinthio, a collection of short stories written in Italian and first published in 1565. This source tells the story of Disdemona (the only named character) and a Moor captain.

In Cinthio's version, the Moor's Ensign develops romantic feelings for Disdemona. When she rejects him, he plots to convince the Moor that she has been unfaithful with the Corporal. The plot unfolds very similarly to Shakespeare's Othello, until in Cinthio's version the Moor kills Disdemona by beating her with a sand-filled stocking. The Moor and the Ensign then turn against each other, and the former is tortured and subsequently killed by Disdemona's relatives.

What does this reveal about Shakespeare's Othello?

When analysing Shakespeare's adaptation, you should consider which aspects of the story he uses directly and which he modifies or introduces. The aspects Shakespeare adds or changes are of significant importance and can serve as valuable contextual evidence in your essays.

Shakespeare's Iago is far more ambiguous and therefore appears more genuinely evil than Cinthio's Ensign. Shakespeare dedicates more attention to Iago's soliloquies, and whilst we never truly understand his motives, it becomes clear that Shakespeare intended for Iago to be bloodthirsty and merciless with seemingly minimal provocation.

Shakespeare enriches the plot by introducing additional characters, including Brabantio and Roderigo. The addition of Brabantio introduces more depth to Othello's situation: Desdemona's father being entirely opposed to their marriage provides another dimension to Othello's insecurities and offers a potential explanation for why he so readily succumbs to Iago's manipulations. The inclusion of Roderigo adds further depth to Iago's character, providing another person for him to manipulate. This enhances our impression of Iago's web of authority and demonstrates the extent to which he will pursue Othello's destruction.

Textual history: Different versions of the same play

The First Folio was published in 1623, seven years after Shakespeare's death. It comprises a collection of 36 of his works, compiled by two of his friends, John Heminges and Henry Condell. Prior to this publication, some of Shakespeare's plays had been published in quartos - cheaper individual editions. However, without the First Folio, approximately half of Shakespeare's plays would have been lost to history.

Production history

Whilst Shakespeare's plays were enjoyed by high society, including the monarch, they were also watched and appreciated by the working classes. At the Globe Theatre in London, those who could not afford a seat would pay one penny to stand in the pit of the theatre. These audience members became known as 'the groundlings'. It is important to remember that whilst we study Shakespeare from critical and academic perspectives today, the plays were primarily written to be watched and enjoyed by all social classes.

Shakespeare's plays frequently feature a comedic subplot which would incorporate bawdy and crude jokes, designed to entertain the groundlings and less-educated audience members. These scenes could also serve to mimic and undermine the main plot, providing some comic relief from the intensity of the main storyline. However, this is not evident in Othello, as the play maintains a sombre tone throughout, with an intense focus on Iago's evil manipulations and Othello's subsequent psychological breakdown.

The first recorded performance of Othello took place in 1604 at the Banqueting House, James I's London palace. The play would also have been performed at the open-air Globe Theatre. The fact that the play was performed by Shakespeare's company, the King's Men, in 1612 at the wedding of Princess Elizabeth (daughter of James I) and Frederick V provides testament to its popularity and success.

Casting and racial representation

The cast would have been entirely male, with female roles performed by young boys. The role of Othello was almost certainly first played by Richard Burbage, the leading actor in Shakespeare's company. He would have performed in black make-up and a wig made of black lambswool. Aldridge is the only actor of African heritage known to have played Othello in Europe in the 19th century, performing the role several times. Otherwise, the role was predominantly taken by white men in make-up. For instance, in the early 19th century, English actor Edmund Kean performed the role wearing light brown make-up, suggesting an interpretation of Othello as North African. It was only in the 20th century and onwards that black actors more commonly assumed the role, and this remains the norm today.

Hugh Quarshie, who played Othello in the RSC's 2015 production, initially expressed hesitancy about accepting the role. He questioned whether a play written over 400 years ago by a white Englishman for another white Englishman in blackface make-up could provide an authoritative and credible profile of a genuine black man ('Playing Othello', British Library).

Modern adaptations

By the 21st century, various global productions have offered different interpretations of Othello. Indian director Vishal Bhardwaj produced a Bollywood version entitled Omkara in 2006, set in Western Uttar Pradesh. By relocating the play to an Indian setting, Bhardwaj explored colourism, the caste-system, and cultural and religious differences within India. In this adaptation, both Othello and Desdemona are Indian, but Desdemona is light-skinned whilst Othello is darker. White actor Patrick Stewart performed Othello in an otherwise all-black performance in the United States in 1997. This version encourages us to consider the text as a play about outsiders and cultural difference, rather than specifically about anti-blackness. These diverse international adaptations allow us to examine Shakespeare's text from different perspectives and appreciate it in new contexts.

Setting

Venice

Othello begins in Venice, but by Act II the action has relocated to a Venetian war outpost in Cyprus. During the 16th and 17th centuries in England, Venice enjoyed a reputation as a cosmopolitan and diverse city, characterised by wealth and political stability.

Venice represented a rare example of a contemporary republican government for Shakespeare's original audience. The Republic style was a continuation of the Ancient Roman tradition. There was considerable fascination among Renaissance viewers with republican governance, particularly because the Tudor era was rapidly approaching its end and there was no clear indication of who would succeed the heirless Elizabeth I. Consequently, there was widespread interest in Elizabethan England regarding potential alternative forms of rule, and the successful and distinctive Republic of Venice therefore attracted significant public attention.

In the minds of Shakespeare's English audience, Venice was therefore a location simultaneously associated with exotic excitement and dangerous otherworldliness. It appeared alluring and almost mystical in its exoticism, yet also existed on the edge of 'civilisation', making it somewhat threatening. This ambivalent attitude is evident in Othello as well, particularly in Shakespeare's treatment of his protagonist. Whilst Iago employs anti-black derogatory language to describe him, the white Venetian characters are simultaneously intrigued by Othello and his background.

Desdemona especially listens "with greedy ear" to Othello's speech in Act I Scene III, in which he recounts "the story of my life". Othello repeatedly shared the story of his past with Brabantio. Although the Venetians appear to hate and fear Othello, they are simultaneously fascinated by his backstory and his 'exotic' upbringing and experiences.

Why did Shakespeare set Othello abroad?

Venice therefore represents a location that is simultaneously familiar and exotic, making it an ideal setting onto which English anxieties and preoccupations can be projected and explored. Literary critic Andrew Hadfield described Venice as "a critical utopian space", a seemingly ideal society where tensions are developing beneath the surface ('Republicanism' in The Oxford Handbook of Shakespeare, 2012).

Cyprus

Despite featuring a cast of Venetian characters, much of the play's action actually unfolds in Cyprus, at a war outpost. This setting is even more remote from the English audience, both geographically and symbolically. Whilst Venice existed at the edge of 'civilisation', Cyprus was considerably more unknown and therefore more dangerous, and closer to the Arab and Turkish world. The further the play's action moves from Western Europe, the more civilisation and honour risk breaking down.

Race

Our examination of the setting leads naturally to a discussion of race and otherness. Shakespeare utilises Venice as a location through which he can explore the concerns and preoccupations of his own society, including interracial and intercultural encounters. We can reasonably assume that the white Venetians' treatment of Othello would have reflected English people's behaviour.

It is impossible to define Othello's race with certainty, and it is questionable whether this is necessary. Although today we might assume the term 'Moor' refers to an Arab inhabitant of North Africa, in Shakespearean England the term had numerous definitions and could describe people from any region in Africa. In some respects, determining Othello's specific race is unimportant. His precise origins do not matter to the other characters: they are aware of his Otherness, and the very fact that he is not white and European is sufficient to set him completely apart from them.

Iago's references to Othello's blackness are therefore laden with moral undertones: beyond describing his physical appearance, he is also characterising him as evil. Even the Duke of Venice defends Othello's marriage to Desdemona by asserting "Your son in law is far more fair than black" (Act I Scene III). On one level, this suggests that the Duke must look past Othello's colour to describe him as a good, moral person - he behaves as if he were "fair", meaning white. This quote also reveals the constant conflation of blackness and evil that Shakespeare's audience and his characters would have assumed.

Othello experiences a complex mixture of respect, fear, and fascination, all of which relate to his race. Despite being respected as a military leader, he is ultimately purged from the white European society to which he only ever partially belonged. Yet as an ethnic minority, Othello also becomes a source of fascination for the European characters. This is most evident in his speech when he recounts his backstory in Act I Scene III: everyone eagerly listens to the story of faraway and unknown places.

Dramatic context

We should also consider how Moors and people of colour were generally depicted on-stage during the Elizabethan and Jacobean periods, and to what extent the characterisation of Othello conforms to or challenges this convention.

The general dramatic convention portrayed Moors as menaces intent on destruction. When they appeared on stage, they were perceived as a threat to the moral, social, and political order. This is exemplified in the character of Aaron, a Moor in Shakespeare's Titus Andronicus. Aaron is a force of pure evil who derives pleasure from causing pain and suffering. He declares: "Tut, I have done a thousand dreadful things / As willingly as one would kill a fly, / And nothing grieves me heartily indeed / But that I cannot do ten thousand more" (Titus Andronicus, Act V Scene I). He represents a caricature of remorseless evil, almost comically extreme in the intensity of his characterisation. This constitutes a typical depiction of Moors on the Elizabethan stage.

Religion: Christianity and Islam

Othello explores the relationship between Christians and Muslims in the late 16th century. The play is set against the backdrop of the ongoing wars between the Christian Republic of Venice and the Muslim Ottoman Empire, which raged throughout the 16th century. This conflict represents another significant aspect of the play's religious elements.

At the beginning of Act II, we learn that the Turkish fleet has been destroyed by a storm, resulting in a Venetian victory. Shakespeare's source material for Othello was set in Florence rather than Venice/Cyprus, so his decision to set the play specifically during these wars was deliberate. This religious conflict serves as an important backdrop to a play whose protagonist is a convert to Christianity from Islam. The wars function as a subtle reminder of the conflict between Christians and Muslims, and provide another reminder of how Othello stands apart from his society. Although his fighting against the Ottoman Empire demonstrates his dedication to Christianity, his Muslim background contributes to the Venetians' subtle distrust of him. Religiously-fuelled hatred perhaps provides another motive for Iago's destructive manipulations.

Women and marriage

Women were subordinates to men during the 16th and 17th centuries, and this subordination is clearly manifested in Othello. Upon marriage, everything a woman owned became her husband's possession; wives themselves were essentially considered amongst their possessions. Fathers were expected to select a husband for their daughters, as Brabantio expects to do for Desdemona. He also considers her to be under his ownership and accuses Othello of being a "foul thief" (Act I Scene II) who has stolen her.

Emilia represents another important female character. She is even more oppressed than Desdemona: by her husband, her mistress, and to some extent Othello as well, as she serves under him. She remains powerless throughout most of the play. Despite her distrust of her husband - she recognises that he is "wayward" (Act III Scene III) - she still accepts Desdemona's handkerchief as he demanded, because as his wife, she is bound to him according to the social order.

However, by the conclusion of the play, Emilia speaks the truth. She exposes Iago's manipulations, insisting that "I am bound to speak" (Act V Scene II), even when he threatens and eventually stabs her. By the final Act of Othello, the normal social order has been so severely disrupted by Othello's murder of Desdemona that Emilia is now free to speak up for herself and to contradict the patriarchal hierarchy. Nevertheless, her exposure of the truth comes too late to achieve any meaningful change: Desdemona is dead, Othello kills himself in regret and grief, and Emilia herself is killed by Iago for her disobedience.

Remember!