Contemporary Urban Environments (AQA A-Level Geography): Revision Notes

Case Study: London

Introduction to London as a global city

London is the capital and most populous city of the United Kingdom. The Greater London Authority reported that the population reached 8.9 million in 2019, with projections suggesting it will grow to 11 million by 2050. This makes London one of Europe's largest and most dynamic urban centres.

London's history stretches back to Roman times when it was established as Londinium. The city developed around the navigable River Thames, which facilitated its growth as a major port. This maritime heritage eventually transformed London into the seat of political power and government for the entire nation.

This prestigious ranking reflects several interconnected factors that establish London's global significance:

• Economic dominance: London functions as a global financial centre with a thriving reputation as a technological hub. The city leads in software and multimedia development, making it particularly successful at attracting direct foreign investment

• Educational excellence: The city performs exceptionally well in terms of higher education quality, with world-renowned universities and extensive library access providing opportunities for learning and research

• Cultural richness: More than 300 languages are spoken across London's diverse population. The city hosts at least 50 non-indigenous communities with populations exceeding 10,000 people. Almost every nation, culture and religion in the world has representation in London

• Global tourism: According to the World Cities Culture Forum, London attracts visitors through its combination of history, heritage, art and culture. The city serves as a major centre for art forms including music and dance, whilst its museums and galleries rank among the most visited globally

• Major events: The hosting of the 2012 Olympic Games significantly raised London's international profile and catalysed the redevelopment of previously run-down areas, creating lasting urban regeneration

Cultural diversity in London

London is frequently described as having 'the world under one roof' because of its extraordinarily multicultural population. The city's role as a port created a long history of immigration, leading to rich ethnic and cultural diversity that defines modern London.

Historical context: the Windrush generation

A pivotal moment in London's cultural development came with the arrival of hundreds of West Indian men aboard the Empire Windrush in 1948. This marked the beginning of mass immigration into the UK. Many of these men were responding to employment adverts and initially intended to stay for only a few years.

Ethnic composition

The ethnic makeup of London demonstrates remarkable diversity. In 2015, just over 3.8 million of London's residents (44% of the population) were of black and minority ethnicity origin. This proportion is projected to increase to 50% by 2038.

Despite some instances of hostility towards immigrant groups, London is widely regarded as a welcoming city. Residents generally recognise the positive social and economic contributions that immigrants make to life in the capital. This acceptance has helped create cohesive communities across the city.

Economic and social well-being

London as an economic powerhouse

London serves as the economic engine of the United Kingdom, generating approximately one-third of the country's entire wealth. This economic dominance stems from its position as a global financial centre, its technological innovation, and its ability to attract international investment and talent.

The reality of inequality: a city of two halves

Despite its enormous wealth, London faces significant social challenges. Parallel to its prosperity, the city experiences some of the highest poverty rates in the country, with a reported 2.1 million people living in poverty.

Characteristics of wealthy areas:

• Multi-million pound houses
• Fine dining and theatre experiences
• Holidays abroad
• Well-paid jobs with six-figure bonuses
• Use of private schools and hospitals

Characteristics of deprived areas:

• Inability to access the housing ladder due to low income and inflated house prices
• Long commutes on buses because tube fares are unaffordable
• Jobs sometimes paying below the minimum wage
• Twice as likely to die from chronic lower respiratory illness
• Lack of leisure time due to holding multiple jobs to make ends meet
• Overcrowded high-rise flats
• Fear of crime and gang violence
• Large proportion of monthly income spent on renting low-cost accommodation far from work

Key statistics from London's poverty profile (2017)

The London Poverty Profile reveals important trends about inequality in the capital:

Poverty trends:

• The percentage of Londoners living in poverty (after accounting for housing costs) decreased from 29% to 27% over six years
• Nearly one million people live in poverty in the private rented sector, more than any other housing sector
• The number of children living in poverty in the private rented sector has tripled over the last ten years

Wealth distribution:

• Wealth inequality is more pronounced than income inequality in London
• The top 10% of Londoners receive nearly 30% of income but own just over 50% of the total wealth
• The bottom 50% of Londoners receive nearly 25% of income but own only 5% of the total wealth

Employment and wages:

• 21% of employees are paid less than the London Living Wage, compared with 22% the previous year (first decrease since 2009)
• 8% of adults of working age receive out-of-work benefits, a decrease of 12% from 2013

Housing affordability:

• The net increase of 6,700 affordable homes in 2015/16 represented less than 40% of the target set in the London Plan
• Only one in four new homes was affordable
• Within England, seven in ten households in temporary accommodation are in London, with over 80% containing children

Health outcomes:

• London's infant mortality rate has fallen by around 40% over a decade
• London has shifted from having an infant mortality rate higher than England's average to one that is now lower

Spatial inequality patterns

Income and life expectancy vary dramatically across London's geography. The difference between extremes can be as much as 5 years of life expectancy. Notably, the difference between Hackney and the West End is comparable to the difference between England and Guatemala. This demonstrates how profound spatial inequality exists even within a single city.

The nature and impact of physical environmental conditions

Air pollution challenges

In the early twentieth century, 'smog' events became so strongly associated with London that the term 'London particular' was coined and remains in use today as a reference to smogs. Whilst air quality has improved significantly since then, London still faces considerable pollution challenges.

The introduction of the Clean Air Act in 1956 and more recent legislation, combined with greener buses, taxi age limits and the Ultra Low Emission Zone (ULEZ), have reduced CO₂ emissions notably. However, nitrogen dioxide levels continue to breach EU legal limits.

Nitrogen dioxide concentrations are particularly elevated along major roads and at key transport hubs such as Heathrow Airport and City Airport. Throughout the day, NO₂ levels are especially high during rush hour as vehicle emissions increase.

Urban heat island effect

Linked to air quality concerns is the impact of London's urban heat island. The centre of London is already up to 10°C warmer than surrounding rural areas. With average summer temperatures predicted to rise further, summer heat waves pose a threat to homes, workplaces and public transport. They can have negative effects on health, particularly for vulnerable people, and lead to greater consumption of water and energy.

The London Climate Change Partnership has suggested that extremely high demands on London's power supply network may lead to 'brownouts'. These are caused by high cooling demand and increases in electricity demand. Brownouts could negatively affect London's sustainability by straining energy infrastructure.

Flooding risk

One further concern linked to London's physical environment is the threat of flooding. This risk comes from five distinct sources:

1. Tidal flooding - from the Thames estuary
2. Fluvial flooding - from rivers and their tributaries
3. Surface flooding - from rainfall
4. Sewer flooding - from overwhelmed drainage systems
5. Groundwater flooding - from rising water tables

Climate change will bring wetter winters and more frequent heavy downpours, as well as rising sea levels and higher tidal surges. All of these factors pose a major threat to London. Fifteen per cent of London lies on the flood plain and is protected by flood defences.

Moving towards greater urban sustainability

The London Sustainable Development Commission was established in 2002 to advise the Mayor of London on making the city a 'sustainable world city'. The Commission updated its aims in 2015 to align with Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) agreed by world leaders.

Various strategies have been implemented to tackle key issues such as inequality, air pollution and urban degradation. These strategies can be organised into four main categories:

Social developments

Urban renewal and regeneration: Urban renewal has brought economic investment and growth to parts of London that previously suffered from urban decline. For example, Olympic regeneration in Newham has provided additional social housing, leisure facilities and greater investment in education. The Queen Elizabeth Olympic Park now provides parklands, waterways and leisure activities. From 2016, the Olympic Stadium became home to West Ham United FC.

Education improvements: A focus on improving education in the capital through the London Challenge initiative has continued to improve outcomes for pupils in London's primary and secondary schools at a faster rate than nationally. Pupils in London now perform better in school than the rest of the country.

Cultural programmes: In Newham, the Every Child programme offers children the chance to learn a musical instrument or take part in cultural events. Children in this area also benefit from universal free school meals, which have been linked to greater attainment and better health. Similar schemes operate in other boroughs.

Economic developments

London Living Wage:

This initiative has been particularly significant. By 2018, it had helped lift over 10,000 London families out of working poverty as a direct result of the wage increase.

Transport infrastructure: When Crossrail opens (planned for 2022), it will increase London's rail-based transport network capacity by 10%. This major infrastructure project will cut journey times across the city, reduce congestion and encourage regeneration in areas along the route.

Employment support: At a borough level, schemes such as Workplace in Newham have been introduced to help people find jobs. Workplace provides residents with free advice about employment options and training. Since 2007, Workplace has supported over 10,000 Newham residents into employment and helped more than 900 businesses fill their vacancies.

Environmental developments

Congestion Charge: The Congestion Charge was introduced in 2003 to discourage driving in central London, thereby reducing congestion and pollution levels.

Green transport policies: More recent 'green' transport policies have included:

• Routemaster buses with green electric hybrid engines
• A fleet of eight hydrogen fuel buses
• More than 1,400 charging points to support the use of electric vehicles
• Zero emission taxis from 2018
• A central London Ultra Low Emission Zone (ULEZ) from 2020 with the objective of reducing air pollutant and CO₂ emissions from road transport

Cycling infrastructure: Cycle superhighways and the cycle hire scheme more commonly known as 'Boris Bikes' have helped to increase cycling in London by 173% since 2001. The aim is for a 400% increase by 2025, although there are continued concerns about cycling safety.

Green space expansion: In response to the urban heat island effect in London, targets have been set to increase green cover in central London by 5% by 2030. This will help moderate temperatures and improve air quality.

Urban governance

The role of the Mayor of London: The role of the Mayor of London was created under the Greater London Authority Act 1999 as part of the government's commitment to restore a city-wide government for London.

Future sustainability proposals

As the urban area of London continues to expand, greater pressures will be placed on services and infrastructure. Strategies encouraging greater urban sustainability will be key to the city's future viability. Current proposals under discussion include making London into the world's first National Park City, which would represent a groundbreaking approach to urban environmental management.