Case Study: Antarctica - Assessment and Future Consequences (AQA A-Level Geography): Revision Notes
Case Study: Antarctica - Assessment and Future Consequences
Overview of governance efforts
The Antarctic and Southern Ocean Coalition (ASOC) plays a crucial role in Antarctic governance. This coalition of non-governmental organisations works to ensure that important issues reach the attention of Antarctic Treaty System (ATS) members and that agreed-upon measures are properly implemented and monitored.
ASOC acts as a vital bridge between civil society and governmental decision-makers, bringing environmental expertise and advocacy to the Antarctic governance process.
Key focus areas of ASOC include:
- Establishing marine and terrestrial protected areas to safeguard biodiversity and build ecosystem resilience in a changing climate
- Incorporating climate change considerations into all relevant decision-making processes
- Managing Southern Ocean fisheries through precautionary, ecosystem-based approaches, particularly for krill populations
- Regulating tourism activities to minimise environmental impact
Assessment of global governance
The ATS is widely regarded as one of the most successful international agreements in existence. Several factors demonstrate its effectiveness:
- Territorial disputes have been suspended, creating a framework for international cooperation
- The agreement functions as a genuine international measure involving the UN and ATS member countries
- NGO involvement has been instrumental in ensuring integrated and effective governance of this 'global common' area
However, protecting Antarctica remains challenging, and several unresolved issues continue to affect its future governance.
Duration of agreements
The Environment Protocol, which underpins the ATS system, could be reviewed in 2048 and potentially modified. Similarly, the Ross Sea Marine Protected Area could be modified in 2052.
These review dates create uncertainty about the long-term protection of Antarctica, as future generations may choose to alter or weaken existing protections.
Territorial claims
The ATS has not rejected any existing territorial claims, though it prohibits the establishment of new ones. Seven nations maintain historical claims to Antarctic territory:
- None of these 'claimant nations' have renounced their claims
- Both the USA and Russia also maintain the right to lay claims in the future
This situation represents a suspended conflict rather than a resolved one, which could resurface if the treaty system weakens. The territorial claims remain frozen in place, creating a delicate balance that depends on continued international cooperation.
Impacts of human activity
The human footprint on Antarctica is increasing through several activities:
- Scientific research - More research stations and personnel
- Tourism - Growing numbers of visitors to the continent
- Fishing - Commercial exploitation of Southern Ocean resources
These activities do not currently provide adequate support for environmental protection, creating concerns about cumulative impacts on the Antarctic ecosystem. The combined effect of multiple human activities may be greater than the sum of their individual impacts.
Marine protected areas (MPAs)
To meet UNEP global biodiversity targets, additional MPAs will need to be established over the next decade. However, this is likely to cause significant disagreements:
- ATS parties wanting to extend marine protection will clash with those seeking greater fishing access
- Nations like China, Russia, and Norway blocked a proposal for the Weddell Sea MPA in 2018
- These disagreements reflect competing economic and conservation interests
The tension between conservation goals and economic interests represents one of the most significant challenges facing Antarctic governance. Each proposed MPA requires consensus among all ATS members, giving any single nation effective veto power.
Climate change challenges
Antarctica is an essential area for research that will help humanity understand and address climate change impacts.
Short-term limitations:
In the immediate future, scientists can do little to prevent:
- Land glaciers melting
- Oceans becoming warmer
- These changes make dealing with other issues, such as establishing MPAs, more complex
The continent's role as a climate research laboratory is therefore crucial for long-term global climate action. Antarctica's ice cores, weather patterns, and ecosystem changes provide invaluable data for understanding Earth's climate systems.
Geopolitics of Antarctica
The geopolitical dimension adds another layer of complexity to Antarctic governance:
China's expanding presence:
- In 2009, China established its third research station at Dome Argus on the Antarctic plateau
- China proposed a code of conduct for this location, which remains under discussion
- Other parties are concerned about potential limits on their own scientific activities
- China has an astronomical observatory at Dome A, considered the best location globally for space observation
- The area is also thought to contain uranium deposits
Strategic Importance of Dome Argus:
Dome A's value extends beyond pure scientific research. Its astronomical observatory provides unparalleled views of space, while potential mineral resources add economic incentives. This combination of scientific and strategic value makes the area particularly significant in Antarctic geopolitics.
Different approaches:
- Pro-conservation 'claimants', such as Australia, are concerned about China and Russia trying to increase their territorial claims
- Similar efforts by Western powers to manage scientific research in other sensitive areas have been accepted, highlighting potential double standards
Future of Antarctic governance
The governance of Antarctica continues to function but relies heavily on political compromises rather than legally binding enforcement. Several concerns arise from this situation:
Key uncertainties:
- Protection cannot be assumed to last forever
- If more powerful members, such as China or the USA, adopt a nationalist approach, they may question whether Antarctica needs protection at all
- The treaty system's effectiveness depends on continued international cooperation and goodwill
Conclusion:
Whilst the ATS has been successful in managing Antarctica as a global common, its future effectiveness is not guaranteed. The convergence of territorial ambitions, resource interests, climate change impacts, and geopolitical tensions creates a complex challenge for maintaining Antarctica's protected status in the coming decades.
Key Points to Remember:
- The ATS is considered one of the most successful international agreements, but challenges remain in protecting Antarctica's future
- Key agreements face review dates: the Environment Protocol in 2048 and the Ross Sea MPA in 2052
- Territorial claims have been suspended but not rejected, with seven nations maintaining claims and the USA and Russia reserving the right to make future claims
- Establishing new Marine Protected Areas is causing disagreements between pro-conservation nations and those wanting greater fishing access, particularly China, Russia, and Norway
- Antarctica's governance relies on political compromise rather than enforcement, making its long-term protection uncertain if major powers adopt more nationalist approaches