The Colonies of Settlement (AQA A-Level History): Revision Notes
The Colonies of Settlement
The colonies of settlement were British territories where substantial numbers of British emigrants established themselves during the nineteenth century. By 1874, these colonies – including the West Indies, Australia, New Zealand, and Canada – were moving towards varying degrees of self-government and independence. The central question for this period concerns the extent to which these colonies had achieved effective independence by 1874.
The West Indies
Economic transformation and decline
British acquisition of several West Indian islands occurred during the seventeenth, eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. These territories became valuable assets primarily through sugar production. Sugar plantations operated as the property of wealthy British landowners who depended on enslaved Africans transported to work the land.
Following the emancipation of enslaved people in the early 1830s, the British West Indies continued sugar production without major disruption initially. However, the removal of the tariff preference policy in 1849 proved devastating.
The 1849 Tariff Crisis
This policy change allowed foreign-grown sugar – produced more cheaply using slave labour – to enter British markets without penalty. West Indian sugar producers could not compete, causing severe economic damage across Britain's Caribbean territories. This economic shock would have profound political consequences.
The Jamaica crisis of 1865
Economic hardship generated intense political tension. In 1865, extensive riots erupted in Jamaica involving downtrodden black communities. Governor Edward Eyre responded by imposing martial law – the temporary suspension of ordinary civil administration and policing in favour of military power during an emergency.
Eyre's Controversial Response
Eyre's suppression proved extremely harsh. He ordered the flogging of many hundreds of black people. William Gordon, a Baptist preacher and politician of mixed race descent, was executed on grounds that his speeches had encouraged rebellion. This execution divided British opinion sharply: some believed Eyre had taken necessary action to prevent worse disorder, whilst others condemned Gordon's execution as judicial murder.
Constitutional and racial tensions
The situation revealed deeper problems about race and representation. People of mixed race, whom Gordon represented, appeared likely to dominate self-governing assemblies in most West Indian colonies. This prospect arose because property qualifications for voting remained relatively low. The British government foresaw difficulties arising from black-dominated assemblies creating laws in colonies where rich white minorities still held economic power.
Diverging Constitutional Paths
The white minority in Jamaica recognised this problem too. In 1865, the island's assembly – still dominated by white representatives – asked Britain to annul Jamaica's constitution. Other islands followed Jamaica's lead.
Islands retaining assemblies:
- Barbados
- Bermuda
- The Bahamas
These islands, where white populations remained less obviously outnumbered, retained a governor with executive authority alongside an assembly that could pursue an independent approach to taxation and legislation.
Dependent colonies: In Jamaica and other dependent colonies, governors exercised considerably greater personal power, operating with minimal local accountability.
Australia
Colonial structure and population growth
No unified Australia existed in the mid-nineteenth century. Instead, several separate colonies operated: New South Wales, Victoria, South Australia and Queensland. Population increased massively after 1850, particularly in Victoria and New South Wales.
The Australian colonies received representative institutions quickly, allowing settlers to participate in governance through elected assemblies. This rapid constitutional development contrasted sharply with the West Indian experience, reflecting the different demographic and economic circumstances of these settlements.
New Zealand
British settlement and conflict
Between 1841 and 1861, approximately 100,000 British emigrants settled in New Zealand, outnumbering the indigenous Maori population. By 1860, settlers had obtained provincial self-government. They had also acquired roughly half of New Zealand's total land area. Disputes over land ownership during the 1860s led to wars between Maoris and settlers.
The Maoris fought effectively but faced eventual defeat following the arrival of 18,000 British soldiers. These troops were sent in response to Sir George Grey's exaggerated accounts of Maori aggression. British taxpayers funded the cost of the Maori wars.
British Withdrawal and Colonial Responsibility
In 1869, British troops withdrew from New Zealand despite pleas for them to remain. The Colonial Office informed New Zealanders that self-government meant handling local problems using local resources. This marked a significant shift in British colonial policy, forcing settlers to take responsibility for their own defence.
Post-war arrangements
Britain did provide New Zealanders with loans for defence against the perceived Maori threat. Fortunately, the wars did not produce lasting animosity. The Maoris retained control of substantial land areas and gained a constitutional voice in the settlers' assembly. White settlers treated them less harshly than indigenous peoples experienced in other colonised regions.
Canada
Geographic scale and federal solution
British North America was geographically vast. In 1860, the provinces that would soon form the Canadian confederation – an association of states united permanently by treaty whilst retaining specific local powers – had a population of 3.3 million, less than London's population at that time.
Federation appeared the best solution for colonies tied together geographically. This arrangement created a central government whilst original colonies kept considerable local powers. Despite serious divisions, proposals for a federal union of Canada gained agreement from Canadians in 1865.
Formation and expansion of the Dominion
In 1867, the Dominion of Canada came into existence, comprising Ontario, Quebec, New Brunswick and Nova Scotia. In 1869, the Canadian government purchased the vast central tract known as Rupert's Land from the Hudson's Bay Company for a mere $300,000. British Columbia joined the Canadian Confederation in 1871.
Canada's Path to Independence
By 1871, Canada had taken a giant stride towards independence. Few Canadians wanted complete separation from Britain at this stage. Nevertheless, that option now existed as their free choice. This represented a fundamentally different relationship from traditional colonial dependence.
Remember!
Key Points to Remember:
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The removal of tariff preference in 1849 severely damaged West Indian sugar economies, leading to political instability and the 1865 Jamaica crisis under Governor Edward Eyre.
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Constitutional arrangements varied: Jamaica lost its assembly after requesting annulment in 1865, whilst islands with larger white populations (Barbados, Bermuda, Bahamas) retained assemblies with taxation and legislative powers.
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Australian colonies received representative institutions quickly and experienced massive population growth after 1850, particularly in Victoria and New South Wales.
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New Zealand saw 100,000 British settlers arrive between 1841-1861, leading to Maori wars in the 1860s; British troops withdrew in 1869, leaving New Zealanders responsible for local defence, though Maoris gained constitutional representation.
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Canada formed a confederation in 1867, expanded through purchasing Rupert's Land (1869) and British Columbia joining (1871), achieving substantial independence whilst maintaining voluntary ties to Britain.