Imperial Power or Decline, 1914–39? (AQA A-Level History): Revision Notes
Imperial Power or Decline, 1914–39?
Context: Imperial sentiment before 1914
British enthusiasm for Empire peaked during the Boer War (1899–1902). After this conflict, imperial sentiment cooled somewhat. The Liberal Party, which won the 1906 and 1910 elections, lacked a grand vision for Empire. Despite this absence of direction, Liberal governments made no attempt to abandon imperial commitments.
Although the Liberal Party had no clear imperial vision, they maintained existing commitments, suggesting that abandoning the Empire was not considered a viable political option even among less imperially-minded governments.
The First World War and imperial strength
The Empire's contribution to victory
Britain's victory in the First World War appeared to demonstrate the Empire's value and strength. The Empire made a substantial contribution to the Allied war effort:
- The Dominions (self-governing territories such as Australia, Canada, New Zealand and South Africa) provided approximately 1.3 million men
- Over 1.4 million Indian troops were mobilised
- The Empire's economic resources greatly assisted the Allied war effort
The scale of imperial contribution: These numbers represent a massive mobilization of resources from across the Empire. The Dominions' voluntary contribution demonstrated strong ties to Britain, while India's participation showed the Empire's ability to draw on vast human resources from its colonies.
Territorial expansion
The outcome of the war resulted in Britain acquiring new territories from Germany and Turkey. By the early 1920s, the British Empire reached its zenith in terms of territorial extent. Britain also exercised huge influence in its informal empire (territories not under direct British rule but within Britain's sphere of influence), especially in the Middle East. No other power enjoyed the same degree of global influence.
Economic weakening
The First World War did not strengthen Britain's imperial position as much as it appeared. The war economically weakened the country. Britain had been forced to sell many overseas investments to finance the war effort. This declining economic power made it difficult for Britain to sustain its global military commitments. The economic foundations of imperial power were being eroded.
The paradox of victory: While the war appeared to demonstrate imperial strength through territorial gains and military contributions, it simultaneously undermined the economic foundations necessary to sustain that empire. Britain's need to sell overseas investments would have long-term consequences for its ability to maintain imperial control.
Constitutional changes and Dominion autonomy
Lack of constitutional coherence
The Empire's constitutional structure continued to lack systematic organisation. The Dominions were essentially self-governing, while most of the 80 or so other imperial territories remained under various forms of British rule. Although Britain and the Dominions had cooperated effectively during the First World War, this cooperation did not continue after 1918.
The Balfour Declaration (1926) and Statute of Westminster (1931)
Hopes that Britain and its Dominions might act with a united voice in world affairs proved impossible to realise. Two measures formalised the changing relationship:
- Balfour Declaration (1926): ensured that an Empire based on central authority was transformed into the Commonwealth of Nations (an association of Britain and its former dominions with looser constitutional ties)
- Statute of Westminster (1931): gave Dominions the right to change their constitutions and even withdraw from the Commonwealth
These changes marked a transformation from imperial control to a voluntary association based on shared sentiment and self-interest.
Worked Example: Understanding the Constitutional Shift
Before 1926: The Dominions were technically subordinate to Britain, with Britain having theoretical authority over their foreign policy and constitutional matters.
After 1926-31: The Dominions became fully autonomous nations, equal in status to Britain, choosing to remain associated through the Commonwealth based on sentiment rather than legal obligation.
Practical impact: Canada, for instance, could now conduct its own foreign policy, sign its own treaties, and even choose not to participate in Britain's wars—a fundamental shift from the previous relationship.
Dominion sentiment and attachment
Although the formal bonds of Empire had disappeared, many people in the Dominions still felt attached to Britain by ties of sentiment and self-interest. In most of Britain's dependent colonies, there was little pressure for home rule at this stage.
Challenges in the interwar period
Unrest in Egypt and Palestine
Britain faced unrest in Egypt and in Palestine during the interwar years.
The Indian independence movement
Britain faced even greater problems with India. Throughout the interwar years, the Congress Party (the main Indian nationalist political organisation), dominated by Gandhi (Mohandas Gandhi, leader of the Indian independence movement), demanded independence. Britain used force to maintain control but also made considerable concessions to Indian nationalists. The growing resistance to imperial rule in India posed the most serious threat to the Empire's future.
India's critical importance: As the "jewel in the crown" of the British Empire, India's nationalist movement represented the most significant challenge to imperial rule. If Britain could not maintain control over India, the viability of the entire imperial project would be called into question.
The debate: Was imperial power played out by 1939?
Arguments for imperial decline
It is possible to claim that Britain's imperial power was played out by 1939. British governments and people arguably lacked the resolution and conviction to hold down the growing resistance to imperial rule. The end of the Raj (British rule in India) seemed nigh. Politicians were probably deluding themselves in believing that by ingenious constitutional arrangements they could prolong the Empire indefinitely.
| Evidence for decline |
|---|
| Economic weakening after WWI |
| Loss of central authority over Dominions |
| Growing nationalist movements, especially in India |
| Lack of political will to maintain control |
| Constitutional changes reducing Britain's power |
Arguments against irreversible decline
The Empire may not have been in irreversible decline or even in retreat by 1939. Few people in 1939 predicted a rapid end of Empire. Britain, despite its economic difficulties, was quite capable of sustaining its imperial commitments. Several factors supported continued imperial viability:
- Britain's economic situation, particularly its dependence on imported food and need for export markets, seemed an excellent reason for maintaining the Empire
- The Dominions continued to be essentially satellite states
- Although formal bonds of Empire had disappeared, people in the Dominions still felt attached to Britain by ties of sentiment and self-interest
- In most of Britain's dependent colonies, there was little pressure for home rule
- The Empire appeared to be a necessary part of any stable world order
The persistence of Empire: In 1939, few observers anticipated the rapid decolonisation that would occur after 1945. The Empire appeared economically necessary, militarily sustainable, and faced limited colonial opposition outside India. The transformation that followed would require the catalyst of the Second World War.
India and the German threat
By 1939, Britain had still not resigned itself to Indian independence. Given the German and Japanese threat, it seemed essential that India remain under British control. The evolution of Britain's imperial system would have been very different but for the Second World War.
The Second World War and accelerated decline (1939–45)
The Empire's wartime contribution
Britain's victory in the Second World War seemed proof of the Empire's strength and solidarity. When Britain declared war on Germany in 1939, Australia, New Zealand, Canada and South Africa did the same. During the war, the Empire provided Britain with 5 million servicemen and essential food and raw materials.
Economic devastation and relative decline
The war weakened Britain and its hold on Empire. Although Britain emerged victorious, it did so largely because of the might of its two main allies: the USA and the USSR. Britain could not compare in military and economic strength with either superpower, both of which were anti-imperialist in outlook.
Economic devastation by 1945:
Britain was in dire economic straits:
- The destruction of houses, factories and shipping had cost the country a quarter of its wealth
- Most foreign assets had been sold to pay for imports
- Britain was too poor to buy what the Dominions and colonies produced
- Britain was too poor to invest in their economic development
- Britain was unable to provide the manufactured goods they needed
Critical consequence: One of the most important factors holding the Empire together was lost: economic interdependence and mutual benefit.
Decolonisation begins (1945–67)
The Labour government and Indian independence
The Labour Party, led by Attlee (Clement Attlee, Prime Minister 1945–51), came to power in 1945. While some Labour MPs wanted to jettison the Empire, this was not the opinion of Attlee's Cabinet. Most Labour ministers recognised that without colonies, Britain would no longer be a great power. Moreover, its economic prosperity would be threatened.
However, Attlee was committed to granting independence to India and Pakistan in 1947 (followed by independence for Burma and Ceylon). This marked the beginning of the end of the Empire. The precedent of India, the first non-white colony to become independent, was certain to influence the course of events elsewhere. If Britain lacked the will to rule in India, the jewel in the crown, then it was almost inevitable that its entire Empire would soon be lost.
The India precedent: Indian independence represented far more than the loss of one colony—it established a precedent that would prove impossible to contain. As the first major non-white colony to gain independence, India's success would inspire nationalist movements throughout the Empire and demonstrate that British rule was no longer inevitable or permanent.
Churchill and the Commonwealth as a "third force"
The granting of independence to India and Pakistan was not seen by Attlee's government as the start of a general process of decolonisation. Churchill, who returned to power in 1951 and who was far more committed to Empire than Attlee, pursued similar policies to his Labour opponent.
British policymakers continued to hope that the Commonwealth would become a "third force", balancing the power of the USA and the USSR. However, the prospect of building a strong Commonwealth stood little chance. The countries of the new Commonwealth had their own interests and priorities.
The "third force" illusion: British hopes that the Commonwealth could act as a unified bloc balancing the superpowers proved unrealistic. The newly independent nations had their own national interests and were unwilling to simply follow Britain's lead in international affairs. The Commonwealth would evolve into a loose association rather than the coordinated power bloc Britain envisioned.
Remember!
Key Points to Remember:
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The First World War revealed both the Empire's strength (1.3 million Dominion and 1.4 million Indian troops) and Britain's economic weakness
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The Balfour Declaration (1926) and Statute of Westminster (1931) transformed the Empire into the Commonwealth of Nations, with Dominions gaining autonomy
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By 1939, the Empire faced challenges (especially Indian nationalism) but was not necessarily in irreversible decline; economic interdependence and lack of colonial pressure for independence suggested continuity
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The Second World War further weakened Britain economically while the USA and USSR emerged as anti-imperialist superpowers
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Indian independence in 1947 marked the beginning of decolonisation, setting a precedent for other colonies and signalling that the Empire's days were numbered