The Post-Colonial Situation, 1964–7 (AQA A-Level History): Revision Notes
The Post-Colonial Situation, 1964–7
British withdrawal and remaining territories
By late 1967, Britain's economic position had deteriorated sharply. In November 1967, the government devalued sterling by 15%, reducing the pound's value substantially. Harold Wilson responded by appointing Roy Jenkins as Chancellor of the Exchequer. Jenkins strongly favoured European integration and opposed Britain's remaining post-imperial military commitments. Despite considerable resistance, Jenkins pushed through the decision to end Britain's military presence in both the Persian Gulf and South-East Asia by 1971.
This withdrawal marked the effective end of Britain's status as a world power. The decision represented a fundamental shift in British foreign policy, acknowledging the country's reduced economic capacity to maintain global military commitments.
However, the empire had not completely disappeared. Several territories remained under British control:
- Numerous small areas too minor to function as independent sovereign nations
- Military bases, notably Gibraltar
- Southern Rhodesia
- The Falkland Islands
- Hong Kong (held under lease from China until 1997)
Challenges facing newly independent states
Leaders of newly independent states, particularly those in Africa, anticipated economic prosperity following independence. Most believed their economies, generally organised along broadly socialist lines, would flourish. This optimism proved misplaced.
Economic difficulties
Ambitious development schemes consistently failed. In most countries, a small group of corrupt officials enriched themselves whilst their populations derived no benefit from independence. Economic management proved weak and inexperienced.
The failure of post-independence economic development reflected multiple factors: limited infrastructure inherited from colonial rule, lack of trained administrators, and often unrealistic expectations about the pace of economic transformation.
Political instability
Many former colonies rapidly transformed into single-party states or military dictatorships. Ethnic, regional and religious divisions plagued numerous African countries.
The Nigerian Civil War (1967-1970)
Nigeria experienced a particularly devastating civil war between 1967 and 1970, causing an enormous loss of life and demonstrating the fragility of post-colonial political structures. This conflict illustrated how colonial borders had often grouped incompatible ethnic and religious communities together, creating tensions that exploded after independence.
Success stories
Despite widespread problems, some former colonies achieved positive outcomes:
- Several states successfully adopted Britain's governmental system, particularly those in the Caribbean, where parliamentary democracy took root
- Malaysia and Singapore achieved economic success, developing strong manufacturing bases and trading relationships
The contrast between these successes and failures reflected differences in colonial experiences, ethnic composition, and leadership quality.
The Commonwealth's evolution
Between 1960 and 1966, 23 new countries joined the Commonwealth. British governments actively promoted the Commonwealth, envisioning a multiracial fraternity that would benefit all members. These hopes largely failed to materialise. By 1964, The Times dismissed the Commonwealth as 'a gigantic farce', reflecting growing scepticism about its value.
Attempts to preserve British influence
Government efforts to promote the Commonwealth served partly as a mechanism for sustaining British prestige whilst concealing declining British power. Conservative politician Enoch Powell described the Commonwealth as 'a sticking plaster for the wound left by the amputation of Empire', suggesting it functioned more as psychological comfort than practical benefit.
Declining cohesion
By the 1960s, the Commonwealth had moved away from any special commitment or deference to Britain. New members hoped to use the organisation to influence British policy, particularly regarding Southern Rhodesia, but Britain proved unable to satisfy their demands.
Achieving a united policy on almost any issue became impossible. If the small group of deeply pro-British Dominion prime ministers in the early twentieth century could not maintain a unified imperial foreign policy, the diverse and greatly enlarged membership of the second half of the century stood no chance.
Strained relationships with the old Dominions
Traditional bonds of friendship with Australia, New Zealand and Canada weakened considerably:
- All three countries increasingly looked to the USA for defence rather than Britain
- Canada's emphatic assertion of its Britishness disappeared; the replacement of the Red Ensign by the Maple Leaf flag symbolised this shift
- Australia and New Zealand reacted with shock to Britain's application to join the EEC in 1961
- Both countries increasingly recognised that Asia, not Britain, held the key to their futures
Limited continuing value
The Commonwealth continued to hold together, providing technical, educational and professional assistance to its members. On occasions, it proved a useful instrument of international cooperation. However, its role remained modest, falling far short of the multiracial partnership British governments had envisioned.
Britain and the European Economic Community
Britain did not join the European Economic Community (EEC) at its formation in 1957, partly because it wished to preserve its special trade relationship with the Commonwealth. However, by the early 1960s, Macmillan determined to join the EEC for economic reasons:
- Britain's share of the world's manufacturing exports was declining
- Britain faced a growing trade deficit
- A shift occurred in Britain's trading activity away from the Commonwealth and towards Western Europe
- The Commonwealth, despite its size, could not match the EEC's purchasing power
Britain's initial applications to join the EEC faced rejection in 1963 and 1967. Britain finally joined in 1973, indicating that it had abandoned hopes of maintaining a viable Commonwealth economic partnership. The sterling area collapsed by 1972, further demonstrating the Commonwealth's economic irrelevance.
This shift from Commonwealth to European economic focus represented a fundamental reorientation of British trade policy and a pragmatic acceptance of economic realities.
Migration to Britain
Post-war labour shortage
After 1945, Britain experienced a shortage of workers. The 1948 Nationality Act allowed the 800 million subjects of the Empire to live and work in the UK without a visa, opening Britain to Commonwealth immigration.
Early migration patterns
The first immigrants came from the Caribbean. Nearly 500 arrived on the Empire Windrush from Jamaica in 1948. In 1953, approximately 3,000 Commonwealth immigrants arrived. Immigration then increased steadily. In 1961, 136,000 immigrants arrived, mainly from India and Pakistan.
Historical interpretation
According to historian Bernard Porter (2004), multiracial Britain constituted 'one of the main results of Empire'. He argued that the Empire, 'despite all its high multi-racial pretensions, had very poorly prepared her people' for this transformation.
Growing restrictions
In 1961, the Commonwealth Immigration Act imposed limits on entry to Britain. The government maintained that unrestricted immigration encouraged racial division in Britain. By the 1960s, opinion divided sharply about Commonwealth immigration:
- Liberals believed Britain was enriched by 'transfusions of new blood'
- Many Britons opposed the influx, sharing Enoch Powell's 1968 vision of the 'Tiber foaming with much blood'
This division reflected broader anxieties about Britain's changing identity in the post-imperial era.
The end of empire: causes and consequences
The British Empire, once the largest territorial entity in history, disappeared with remarkable speed. Between 1945 and 1965, the number of people under British colonial rule shrank from 700 million to 5 million. Within a single generation, approximately 26 countries gained independence.
Multiple causes precipitated this collapse:
- Loss of Britain's prestige following the Second World War
- Post-war British military weakness and inability to maintain overseas garrisons
- American and Soviet opposition to imperialism
- Emergent nationalism in the colonies, often led by Western-educated elites
- Global opposition to Western imperialism and its retreat on nearly all fronts
- Britain's recurrent economic crises, limiting resources for imperial defence
- Britons' preference for welfare spending at home rather than expenditure abroad
British attitudes to imperial decline
Relatively few Britons viewed the end of Empire as a national humiliation. Government ministers and officials worked to dismiss critics of imperial withdrawal as anachronistic and reactionary. Most Britons accepted the Empire's demise as inevitable and recognised this acceptance as correct.
Historical assessment
The Empire contained within itself the seeds of its own destruction. Its commitment to trusteeship, the principle of preparing colonies for self-government, meant it was ultimately doomed to disintegration. The end of Empire proved beneficial for Britain. The country lacked the strength to fulfil its overseas responsibilities and needed to adapt to its reduced global position.
However, the manner and speed of withdrawal created problems. Many newly independent states lacked the institutional foundations, trained personnel, and economic infrastructure necessary for stable governance. The arbitrary borders drawn by colonial powers, often dividing ethnic groups or forcing rival communities together, created lasting conflicts that persist today.
Remember!
Key Points to Remember:
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Britain's 1967 sterling devaluation and military withdrawal from the Persian Gulf and South-East Asia by 1971 marked the effective end of British world power status, though some territories (Gibraltar, Falklands, Hong Kong) remained under British control.
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Most newly independent African states experienced economic failure, corruption, and political instability (including single-party states and military dictatorships), though some former colonies like Malaysia, Singapore, and Caribbean states achieved political stability and economic success.
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The Commonwealth expanded significantly (23 new members 1960-1966) but failed to maintain unity or influence British policy; traditional relationships with Australia, New Zealand, and Canada weakened as these countries looked increasingly to the USA and Asia.
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Britain's 1973 entry into the EEC (after rejections in 1963 and 1967) and the 1972 collapse of the sterling area demonstrated that Britain had abandoned hopes of a viable Commonwealth economic partnership in favour of European integration.
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Commonwealth immigration to Britain increased substantially after the 1948 Nationality Act, with 136,000 immigrants arriving in 1961 alone; the 1961 Commonwealth Immigration Act imposed restrictions amid growing public division about multiracial Britain's development.