Malcom X and Black Power (AQA A-Level History): Revision Notes
Malcom X and Black Power
The emergence of Black Power in the mid-1960s
By the mid-1960s, a new phase of African American activism had begun to develop. Support grew for more militant black leaders including Malcolm X, Stokely Carmichael, Bobby Seale and Huey Newton. This shift occurred because progress in the civil rights movement had been painfully slow, with many African Americans feeling that Martin Luther King Jr's nonviolent methods would never deliver genuine equality in politics or opportunities in daily life.
The Nation of Islam represented an organisation that had consistently rejected King's approach to civil rights. Separatism describes the belief in keeping races apart, advocating for two separate countries for black and white Americans. Members of the Nation of Islam rejected their slave surnames and adopted new names beginning with 'X'.
The organisation had been established in 1930 by Wallace Fard but, by the early 1960s, was under the leadership of Elijah Muhammad, a Baptist preacher from Georgia.
The Nation of Islam's ideology
Elijah Muhammad developed a distinctive theology claiming that Allah originally created people black, whilst other races were created by an evil scientist named Yakub. According to this belief system, whites would rule the world for several thousand years, but then Allah would return and end their supremacy.
The Nation of Islam worked to provide African Americans with an alternative to Christianity, which they associated with white supremacy. The organisation pursued several key objectives:
- Persuaded members to adopt a religious lifestyle
- Worked to raise black self-esteem
- Maintained separation between black and white Americans
- Encouraged African Americans to improve their economic circumstances
Malcolm X's life and leadership
Malcolm X emerged as the most prominent member of the Nation of Islam. Born Malcolm Little in Omaha in 1925, his early life was marked by violence and hardship. His father was murdered by white supremacists in 1931. By 1942, Malcolm was living in New York and had become involved in pimping and drug dealing. In 1946, he was found guilty of burglary and imprisoned. During his incarceration in 1952, he became a follower of the Nation of Islam and changed his surname to 'X'. In 1964, he left the Nation of Islam and formed the Muslim Mosque, Inc. and the black nationalist Organisation of Afro-American Unity. In February 1965, he was shot by assassins who were probably members of the Nation of Islam.
Malcolm X possessed brilliant oratorical skills which helped increase the Nation of Islam's membership to approximately 100,000 between 1952 and 1964. He demonstrated superb organisational abilities and, during his time with the Nation of Islam, travelled across the USA running converts.
Malcolm X helped set up educational and social programmes targeting black youths in ghettos. By 1960, 75 per cent of Nation of Islam members were aged 17–35. He worked hard to connect young African Americans to their African heritage.
Malcolm X's criticism of the civil rights movement
Malcolm X expressed harsh criticism of King and other civil rights leaders for their methods. He strongly criticised the 1963 March on Washington, which he called 'the farce on Washington', because he could not understand how so many black people were impressed by a march organised by whites.
Malcolm X believed that violence could be used only for self-defence but also as a means to secure a separate black nation. This marked a fundamental difference from King's strictly nonviolent approach.
In March 1964, Malcolm X left the Nation of Islam after a falling out with Elijah Muhammad. The latter was increasingly jealous of Malcolm's greater fame and influence. Malcolm X wanted to make political speeches, to which the Nation of Islam was opposed. A 1964 visit to Mecca changed Malcolm X. He saw Muslims of different races interacting as equals and came to believe that Islam could be a means by which racial problems could be overcome. He continued to urge African Americans to defend themselves if necessary, so that he remained hated by whites. He was also unacceptable to the Nation of Islam, which he increasingly attacked in his speeches. He was assassinated in 1965, probably by the Nation of Islam.
Assessing Malcolm X's impact
Malcolm X is sometimes viewed as a failure in comparison to the apparent successes achieved by King. His support for violence generated many enemies and critics. His advocacy of separatism was unrealistic and unattainable.
However, Malcolm X's true impact was profound:
Malcolm X served as a realistic role model for ghetto African Americans who could relate to him far more than King. He had transformed himself from pimp, cocaine addict, armed robber and convict into a national African American leader. He helped raise the self-esteem of African Americans more than any other individual in the civil rights movement.
His views and ideas formed the foundation for more radical movements such as Black Power and the Black Panthers.
Black riots, 1964–1967
Between 1964 and 1966, the black city ghettos of the North, Midwest and West witnessed around 300 riots. Many young African Americans were frustrated and felt anger at high rates of unemployment, continuing discrimination and poverty.
On 11 August 1965, this frustration exploded into a major riot involving 30,000 people in the Watts district of Los Angeles. The riot left 34 dead and caused approximately $40 million of damage.
Riots erupted across major cities in the USA during the following two summers, peaking in the summer of 1967, when riots occurred in 125 cities. It took 21,000 federal troops and 34,000 National Guardsmen to restore order during the riots of 1965–67, with a total of $145 million of damage. Black ghettos in cities such as Chicago and Newark became no-go areas for whites.
The Black Power movement
The frustration and anger that produced the inner-city riots also encouraged the emergence of the Black Power movement. By 1966, SNCC had moved away from King and began to support Black Power. Black Power was originally a political slogan but it came to encompass a wide range of activities in the late 1960s that aimed to increase the power of black Americans.
One of the leading figures in this movement was Stokely Carmichael. Carmichael and other leading figures in the SNCC wanted his followers to take pride in their heritage and they adopted the slogan 'Black is beautiful'. They wanted African Americans to develop a feeling of black pride as well as promoting African forms of dress and appearance. Carmichael was criticised because of his aggressive attitude and his denouncement of US involvement in the war in Vietnam. Black Power gained tremendous publicity at the 1968 Mexico City Olympics.
Stokely Carmichael was born in Port of Spain, Trinidad and Tobago, in 1941 but moved to New York in 1943. He attended Howard University where he gained a degree in Philosophy. He became actively involved in the civil rights movement, taking part in the freedom rides in 1961 when he was jailed for seven weeks, and becoming chairman of the SNCC in 1966. He wanted blacks to take responsibility for their own lives and to reject white help.
The Mexico Olympics demonstration
The Black Power movement gained worldwide publicity at the 1968 Mexico Olympics. During the winners' ceremony for the men's 200m relay, the American black athletes Tommie Smith and John Carlos wore part of the movement's uniform – a single black glove and a black beret – and also gave the clenched-fist salute.
During the ceremony, when the US national anthem was being played, Smith raised the salute with his right hand to indicate Black Power and Carlos with his left to show black unity.
The Black Panthers
At the same time as the urban riots and the development of Black Power, the Black Panthers emerged. This party was founded by Huey Newton and Bobby Seale in October 1966 in Oakland, California. They were both heavily influenced by Malcolm X.
The Black Panthers developed a ten-point programme, which included an end to police brutality as well as decent housing, education and full employment for African Americans. They were prepared to use revolutionary means to achieve them.
The Panthers set up practical community action programmes, which won them support among ghetto African Americans. They served breakfasts to poor African American children, established healthcare clinics and provided childcare for working mothers. They also helped to leave a legacy of greater awareness of black culture and history, which culminated in more African American studies in educational institutions.
The Panthers wore uniforms and were prepared to use weapons, training members in their use. Their rally call was 'Power to the People'. They rejected the dominant white culture and sported 'Afro' haircuts. By the end of 1968, they had 5,000 members. However, internal divisions and the events of 1969, which saw 27 Panthers killed and 700 injured in confrontations with the police, saw support diminish. They were constantly targeted by the FBI and, by 1982, the party was disbanded.
Key dates
- 1965: Assassination of Malcolm X; riots in Watts district of Los Angeles
- 1966: Black Panthers set up by Bobby Seale and Huey Newton
- 1968: Black power salute by Tommie Smith and John Carlos at Mexico Olympics
Key Points to Remember:
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The Black Power movement emerged in the mid-1960s because progress in civil rights had been painfully slow and many African Americans felt King's nonviolent methods would never bring genuine equality.
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Malcolm X was the most famous member of the Nation of Islam and, despite his advocacy of separatism and self-defence, he served as a realistic role model for ghetto African Americans and helped raise black self-esteem more than any other individual.
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Between 1964 and 1967, approximately 300 riots erupted in black city ghettos across the North, Midwest and West, caused by frustration with unemployment, discrimination and poverty, causing $145 million of damage.
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The Black Panthers, founded in Oakland in 1966, combined revolutionary rhetoric with practical community programmes such as free breakfasts and healthcare clinics, but were targeted by the FBI and disbanded by 1982.
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Black Power gained worldwide attention at the 1968 Mexico Olympics when Tommie Smith and John Carlos gave the clenched-fist salute during the medal ceremony.