Key Figures (AQA A-Level History): Revision Notes
Key Figures
The period 1865-1975 witnessed America's transformation from a nation recovering from civil war into a global superpower. This transformation was shaped by presidents, industrialists, reformers, and civil rights leaders whose actions defined American political, economic, and social development across more than a century.
Reconstruction and its aftermath (1865-1877)
Andrew Johnson (1808-75) rose from humble origins, training as a tailor before entering politics. He was largely self-taught. Johnson represented Tennessee as a Democrat in Congress from 1843 and became state governor in 1853. Upon Lincoln's assassination in April 1865, Johnson assumed the presidency. His tenure proved deeply problematic: as a Southerner, he lacked the trust of Northern interests and confronted impeachment proceedings. Johnson lost the 1868 election.
Andrew Johnson became the first president to face impeachment, reflecting the deep political divisions during Reconstruction. His lenient policies toward the South and conflicts with Radical Republicans in Congress nearly resulted in his removal from office.
William H. Seward (1801-72) served as Governor of New York State from 1838 to 1842 before becoming New York Senator from 1849 to 1861 when Lincoln appointed him Secretary of State. He retained this position until 1869. During the Civil War, Seward's greatest achievement may have been maintaining British neutrality. He was injured during the attacks surrounding Lincoln's assassination in April 1865. During his post-war tenure from 1865 to 1869, Seward pursued an expansionist agenda, notably purchasing Alaska from Russia for the United States. He retired following President Johnson's defeat.
The Gilded Age and industrial expansion (1877-1900)
Andrew Carnegie (1835-1919) exemplified the self-made industrialist. Beginning his working life in a Pittsburgh cotton factory, Carnegie moved into railroads. Profitable investments enabled him to establish steel production. In 1901 he sold his company to banker J.P. Morgan for $450 million, then devoted his fortune to philanthropy. Carnegie funded hospitals, libraries and universities, reputedly distributing over $350 million during his lifetime.
Carnegie's philosophy of the "Gospel of Wealth" argued that the rich had a moral obligation to redistribute their fortunes for the public good. His libraries, in particular, became landmarks in communities across America and helped democratize access to knowledge.
Grover Cleveland (1837-1908) worked as a lawyer in Buffalo, New York, before entering politics as Mayor of Buffalo in 1881. He became Governor of New York in 1884 and won the presidency that same year with a reputation for honesty and reform. Cleveland attempted to reform big business practices during his tenure but achieved only limited results. He remains the only president to serve two non-consecutive terms: 1884-88 and 1892-96.
William McKinley (1843-1901) was a teacher who became a Civil War hero before entering Congress in 1868. He built his reputation on support for the 1890 tariff bearing his name. In 1890 McKinley became governor of his home state, Ohio. Following a fiercely contested election, he became president in 1896. McKinley's presidency is closely associated with the expansion of US imperialism. In 1901 McKinley was assassinated.
Theodore R. Roosevelt (1858-1919) was born into a wealthy family and developed an interest in Republican politics. He won election to the New York State Assembly in 1881 as its youngest ever member. Roosevelt became fascinated by the West and spent time as a cattle rancher and deputy sheriff. His popular books drew on these experiences. On returning to New York, Roosevelt served as Police Commissioner. During the Spanish-American-Cuban War of 1898, he led a cavalry detachment known as the 'Rough Riders'. Roosevelt became McKinley's vice president and succeeded to the presidency in 1901 following the latter's assassination. His presidency became noted for progressive policies and imperialism. He was disappointed with his successor, Taft, and opposed him in the 1912 presidential campaign as an independent, which split the Republican vote and enabled Wilson to win.
Theodore Roosevelt's energetic personality and diverse accomplishments—from conservation efforts to trust-busting, from the Panama Canal to the Nobel Peace Prize—made him one of the most dynamic presidents in American history. His motto "speak softly and carry a big stick" encapsulated his approach to both domestic and foreign policy.
The Progressive Era and First World War (1900-1920)
Woodrow Wilson (1856-1924) pursued an academic career, writing and teaching on politics. He became hugely influential as a 'Congressional Government' theorist in 1885 and became president of Princeton University in 1902. Wilson entered politics as a reforming Democratic Governor of New Jersey before becoming the 28th president in 1912. Wilson followed progressive policies to keep the USA neutral during the First World War. However, deteriorating relations prompted him to declare war on Germany in April 1917. Wilson attempted to broker a lasting post-war peace settlement. His health deteriorated during an extensive but unsuccessful tour to promote it in the USA.
Alfred Mahan (1840-1914) was a career naval officer who developed theories on the importance of naval power in making countries strong. His 1890 work The Importance of Sea Power in History proved especially influential in expanding not only the US navy but others, such as the German navy. Mahan subsequently wrote about other naval heroes such as Lord Nelson before his death in 1914.
Mahan's naval theories influenced military strategists worldwide and contributed to the naval arms race that preceded World War I. His work provided intellectual justification for American imperial expansion and the development of a powerful blue-water navy capable of projecting force globally.
The 1920s and Depression era (1920-1941)
Herbert Hoover (1874-1964), a former mining engineer and millionaire businessman, served as Secretary of Commerce during the 1920s before becoming Republican president in 1929. Hoover's administration was dominated by efforts to end the Great Depression, but after his re-election defeat in 1932 he became widely regarded as having failed. He spent his remaining years as a respected elder statesman.
Huey Long (1893-1935) was a popular politician from Louisiana who adopted the 'Share Our Wealth' programme. He was viewed as a viable rival to Roosevelt for the 1936 Democratic nomination for president before his assassination.
Huey Long's populist "Share Our Wealth" program proposed radical wealth redistribution—limiting personal fortunes and guaranteeing every American family a minimum income. His growing influence made him a potential challenger to FDR before his death, and his ideas influenced later social welfare policies.
Henry Ford (1863-1947) established his company manufacturing motor vehicles in 1903 and pioneered mass production techniques which reduced the cost of his cars considerably. Ford relocated to a large factory at Dearborn, Michigan, in 1917 where he operated as a paternal employer provided employees maintained productivity. His economic success diminished rivals such as General Motors, which emerged offering greater choice and more advanced technology in their vehicles. Ford increasingly adopted right-wing political views before his death.
The New Deal and Second World War (1932-1945)
Franklin Delano Roosevelt (1882-1945), former Secretary of the Navy and Governor of New York, became president in 1932 at the height of the Depression. He had contracted polio in 1924. His New Deal transformed the USA but achieved only limited economic success. Roosevelt remained president throughout the Second World War and died in office in April 1945.
Franklin D. Roosevelt remains the only president to serve more than two terms, winning four consecutive elections. His New Deal programs fundamentally reshaped the relationship between the federal government and American citizens, establishing the foundation of the modern welfare state.
Eleanor Roosevelt (1884-1962) was highly active as First Lady, promoting gender and racial issues in particular. Eleanor often reported directly to her husband about whether New Deal initiatives were working. She maintained a high-profile journalism career and encouraged people to contact her with their concerns. She expanded the First Lady's role into a more active, political one.
Post-war America and the early Cold War (1945-1960)
Harry S. Truman (1884-1972), Democratic Senator from Missouri and vice president from January 1945, unexpectedly became president upon Roosevelt's death in April. Truman made the decision to drop atomic bombs on Japan. He subsequently presided over post-war prosperity and the development of the Cold War.
Dwight D. Eisenhower (1890-1969) was a career soldier who became Supreme Allied commander in Europe during the Second World War, masterminding the invasion of Northern Europe in 1944. He became Republican president in 1953 and presided over 1950s prosperity and the developing arms race. Eisenhower retained great popularity, although he was conservative and reluctant to advance issues such as Civil Rights.
McCarthy's Communist Witch-Hunt
Joseph McCarthy's tactics gave rise to the term "McCarthyism"—using unsubstantiated accusations and intimidation to suppress opposition. His interrogations destroyed careers and reputations, creating a climate of fear that extended beyond government into Hollywood, academia, and other sectors. The term remains synonymous with political persecution and character assassination.
Joseph McCarthy (1908-57) was born in Wisconsin, trained as a lawyer and served in the US Marines during the Second World War, although he was subsequently found to have exaggerated his war record. He became Senator in 1946 and achieved notoriety in 1950 when he initiated a communist witch-hunt with allegations of communist infiltration into government organisations. However, in 1954 McCarthy was censored by the Senate for his bullying tactics. He died of hepatitis worsened by alcohol abuse in May 1957.
The 1960s: reform, rights and conflict (1960-1969)
John F. Kennedy (1917-63) was born into a fiercely ambitious Irish-American family. A war hero in the Second World War, he entered Congress in 1947 and became Senator for his home state, Massachusetts, in 1952. In 1960 Kennedy won election as president. Although he achieved acclaim for his foreign policy, notably his handling of the Cuban Missile Crisis, much of his domestic programme met with resistance from a hostile Congress due to opposition. He was assassinated in November 1963.
Lyndon B. Johnson (1908-73) was a teacher from Texas who became a fervent supporter of the New Deal. Elected to Congress in 1937, he progressed through the political ranks to become Kennedy's vice president. Johnson inherited the presidency following Kennedy's assassination and requested that Civil Rights legislation be passed as a legacy for Kennedy. He also introduced the ambitious Great Society programme, but his presidency became mired in the Vietnam War. In 1968 he decided not to seek re-election.
Johnson's Great Society aimed to eliminate poverty and racial injustice through programs including Medicare, Medicaid, federal education funding, and urban renewal. While achieving significant legislative success, these domestic triumphs were overshadowed by the escalating Vietnam conflict that ultimately undermined his presidency.
Martin Luther King Jr (1929-68) was a Baptist minister and hugely influential Civil Rights campaigner. He first gained prominence during the 1955 Montgomery Bus Boycott and subsequently led many campaigns. He commanded wide national and international acclaim, winning the Nobel Peace Prize in 1964. King advocated peaceful protest. However, by the time of his death he was losing some influence to more militant campaigners. King was assassinated in April 1968.
Martin Luther King Jr's philosophy of nonviolent resistance, inspired by Mahatma Gandhi, proved instrumental in advancing Civil Rights legislation. His "I Have a Dream" speech at the 1963 March on Washington remains one of the most iconic moments in American history, articulating a vision of racial equality that continues to inspire movements worldwide.
The later Cold War and détente (1969-1975)
Richard Nixon (1913-94) was a lawyer from California who won election to Congress as a Republican. In 1950 he became a Senator, supporting McCarthy during the communist witch-hunts. He became vice president during the Eisenhower era and was elected president in 1968. Nixon's presidency witnessed the development of détente, but was ultimately marred by the Watergate scandal. Nixon was controversially pardoned for his role in the scandal and spent his later years as a widely respected world statesman.
Nixon's foreign policy achievements—opening relations with China, pursuing détente with the Soviet Union, and negotiating arms control agreements—represented significant Cold War breakthroughs. Yet these accomplishments were overshadowed by Watergate, which resulted in his becoming the first president to resign from office.
Remember!
Key Points to Remember:
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Presidents shaped the superpower: From Reconstruction through to the Cold War, presidential leadership drove American development—some successfully (Theodore Roosevelt, Franklin D. Roosevelt, Truman), others problematically (Andrew Johnson, Hoover, Nixon).
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Industrialists built economic power: Carnegie and Ford exemplified how industrial innovation and mass production transformed America into an economic superpower, though their approaches to labour relations differed considerably.
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Reform movements defined progress: Progressive Era reformers, New Deal architects, and Civil Rights leaders (especially Martin Luther King Jr) challenged inequalities and expanded democracy, though often facing fierce opposition.
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Assassination marked political transitions: Three presidents (McKinley, Kennedy) and two other major leaders (Huey Long, Martin Luther King Jr) were assassinated during this period, demonstrating the violent tensions within American society.
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Foreign policy evolved with power: From Seward's Alaska purchase and McKinley's imperialism, through Wilson's internationalism and Roosevelt's wartime leadership, to Cold War presidents confronting communism, America's global role expanded dramatically across the period.