Progressivism (AQA A-Level History): Revision Notes

Progressivism

Introduction to the Progressive era

Historians often describe the first two decades of the twentieth century as the Progressive era. There has been extensive debate about when this era began and ended, and how much the Progressive Movement actually accomplished. Some historians even question whether a coherent Progressive era or movement existed at all.

The Progressive Movement emerged in the USA during the 1890s. It developed from various sources, including some influence from the Populist Party of the 1890s. The Progressives adopted several aims from the Populist Party, and the Party itself achieved electoral successes—eleven governors and numerous state and local officials were elected, with approximately 45 members serving in Congress between 1891 and 1902. However, many leading Progressives, such as Theodore Roosevelt and Woodrow Wilson, strongly opposed the popular democracy represented by Populism, viewing the Populists as backward-looking liberal reformers attempting to recapture an idealized agricultural past.

The nature and meaning of Progressivism

Progressivism was a loose grouping of many individuals and organisations, with no easily identifiable leaders and no clear set of aims. It was not confined to one of the main political parties—at presidential level, Theodore Roosevelt and William Howard Taft, both Republicans, and Woodrow Wilson, a Democrat, were all seen as Progressives.

One of the first historians of Progressivism, De Witt, whose book The Progressive Movement was published in 1913, argued that the Progressive Movement was concerned with the regulation of big business, political reform and social reform. More recently, Chambers defined Progressivism as interventionism—the belief that direct intervention at state and federal level could bring about improvements to society.

The movement developed in different directions over time—from political reform and the regulation of working hours through to votes for women and constitutional changes. The Progressives were responsible for numerous substantial achievements including amendments to the Constitution, radical reforms and changes to the role of the federal government which would have far-reaching implications for the twentieth century.

Why did Progressivism emerge?

There was no single reason for the emergence of Progressivism. Multiple factors combined to create conditions that prompted this reform movement.

Economic problems

The economic depression of 1893 created widespread hardship across the United States. Unemployment in industrial cities rose sharply and remained at twelve per cent throughout the rest of the 1890s. Businesses reduced wages to maintain profits, which caused living standards to fall. During the recession, many banks collapsed, resulting in people losing their savings. Agriculture continued to decline due to falling prices, and the small farmers of the North-east could not compete with the large-scale farming operations of the West.

Social problems

Many Americans lived in desperate poverty. Living conditions in numerous cities were appalling—overcrowding was widespread, sewage disposal was totally inadequate, and clean water was lacking. Working conditions were also extremely poor, with no restriction on working hours. A six-day, 72-hour working week was commonplace. Moreover, there was no welfare system in the USA—no unemployment benefit, no sick pay, and no compensation for accidents at work.

The need for political reform

Growing dissatisfaction with the two main political parties fuelled demands for reform. The Democrats, who were strong in the South, remained deeply conservative. The Republicans, who dominated Congress, appeared to have become the party of big business and banks. Progressives opposed corrupt party machines and big business domination of the political process. They sought a more open and democratic system for electing mayors and other public officials.

The need to regulate big business

In the late nineteenth century, large businesses, particularly trusts, became so powerful that they threatened to establish monopolies in particular industries. This meant they could fix prices without fear of competition. Increasing hostility developed towards individuals such as Rockefeller, Morgan and Carnegie, who seemed to put their own profits before the interests of the masses. Demands grew for government regulation to control big business, especially trusts, although Progressives could not agree on how they should be brought under control.

The influence of the media

In the early twentieth century, newspaper and magazine circulation increased dramatically. By 1904, McClure's magazine was selling 750,000 copies, and eight years later Collier's magazine had reached 1 million sales per edition. The press played a substantial role in exposing evils in American society, beginning in 1902 with McClure's magazine which exposed political and business corruption in most of America's cities. Other writers and journalists such as Ida Tarbell, Lincoln Steffens and Upton Sinclair wrote a series of what became known as 'muckraking articles', which greatly influenced public opinion and accelerated reform.

Fear of revolution

Some Americans were concerned about the growth of socialism and radicalism, and felt that unless there was reform there could well be revolution. Trade unions grew in strength, with more workers supporting militant actions such as strikes, which often turned violent—for example, the 1892 steelworkers strike in Pittsburgh. Many of those who feared revolution were from the middle class. Indeed, Progressivism is often seen as a middle-class movement. Most Progressive leaders were middle-class professionals such as lawyers and doctors who were desperate to bring about reform to create a more efficient and stable society.

Aims of the Progressive Movement

The Progressive Movement had a wide variety of political, economic and social aims.

Political aims

Progressives wanted a range of political reforms:

• Constitutional changes, including allowing women to vote and ensuring that senators were more accountable by making them directly elected rather than chosen by state legislatures.

• A much greater role for federal government in the economy and society, particularly to regulate big business and intervene on the side of workers.

• Radical reform of towns and cities which were often controlled by corrupt officials. Progressives wanted a more open and democratic system for electing mayors and other public officials.

• Changes to the political parties, which seemed to be dominated by a few wealthy businessmen who controlled candidate nomination at local, state and even presidential level. One demand was for the open primary election—an early stage of voting in which the whole electorate can choose a political party's candidates for election, rather than having the candidates chosen for them by the party.

Economic aims

The Progressives wanted government to play a much greater role in regulating business to ensure that it was run in the interest of the whole community and not just a few rich individuals. They believed that government should have much more control of banks, insurance companies and the stock market.

They also wanted new legislation which would ensure that employers recognized trade unions, regulated hours of work and provided compensation for injury at work as well as insurance schemes for unemployment, sickness and old age. In addition, laws to provide consumer protection against adulterated food (which was quite widespread at the time), rigged prices and monopolies.

Finally, they wanted to change the currency, which was based on gold, and introduce a silver coinage system. Progressives believed this would help raise prices for farmers and reduce the power of the trusts and big business.

Social aims

These included a broad range of reforms which would provide a better quality of life for a great number of Americans:

• Female emancipation. In 1890, the National American Suffrage Association was set up to campaign for the vote for women.

• Many Progressives were shocked at the poor living and working conditions and the extent of poverty in the USA and wanted the government to provide a safety net to help those who were too poor to help themselves through state-funded welfare benefits, such as those introduced in Germany and France.

• Progressives also supported the abolition of the manufacture and sale of alcohol. In 1893, the Anti-Saloon League was founded as a pressure group to campaign for Prohibition—the prevention by law of the manufacture and sale of alcohol—by publicizing the damage that alcohol did to society.

• Reforms to help African Americans who, having moved to the North to escape the poverty of the South, were often treated as second-class citizens and experienced poor living standards.

Key figure: Robert La Follette (1855–1925)

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