Social Effects (AQA A-Level History): Revision Notes
Social effects
The Second World War brought profound changes to American society, transforming the lives of ordinary citizens in ways that extended far beyond the battlefield. Whilst the economy expanded dramatically during the war years, the most substantial social transformations occurred within specific demographic groups: Japanese Americans, women, and African Americans. Each group experienced the war differently, facing distinct challenges and opportunities that would shape the broader trajectory of American civil rights.
Treatment of Japanese Americans
The path to internment
As tensions between the United States and Japan intensified towards the end of 1941, suspicion of Japanese Americans grew. By this point, approximately 2,000 individuals labelled as Japanese subversives had been detained, alongside 14,000 Germans and Italians. However, no official policy initially mandated widespread internment. General John L. Dewitt, Chief of the Army West Coast Command, dismissed early calls for mass detention as "damned nonsense".
Yet mounting fears of a Japanese attack on the West Coast, amplified by respected journalists such as Walter Lippmann, led to increasing pressure for action. Dewitt eventually capitulated, arguing that distinguishing between loyal and disloyal Japanese Americans was impossible, and therefore all should be detained.
Between February and March 1942, approximately 15,000 Japanese Americans—many with relatives serving in the American armed forces—voluntarily departed from Dewitt's command area. Other regions refused to accept them; the Attorney-General of Idaho, for example, stated bluntly that his state was for whites only.
Dewitt then implemented compulsory relocation. Ten relocation centres were established throughout the western states, and 100,000 Japanese Americans were forcibly removed from their homes. They were compelled to abandon their property without protection, resulting in widespread looting. Economic losses to the Japanese American community were estimated at $400 million.
Conditions in the camps
Relocation centres were facilities where Japanese Americans were confined during the war, functioning effectively as concentration camps. They featured armed guards and barrack-style accommodation.
Conditions were harsh and degrading. At the Manzanar camp, riots resulted in two deaths. One guard reportedly stated that the only deterrent preventing him from machine-gunning the internees was concern about potential retaliation against American prisoners of war held by Japan.
The end of internment and its aftermath
By 1944, as fears of Japanese attack receded, some internees began returning home. In December 1944, the Supreme Court ruled that the internment of loyal Japanese Americans was unconstitutional.
Nevertheless, neither fellow Japanese American citizens living outside Dewitt's command area, nor German or Italian Americans, had been subjected to internment on this scale. The lingering resentment and sense of injustice persisted for many years after the war's conclusion.
Women
Wartime employment transformation
During the 1940s, traditional gender roles remained deeply entrenched; women were primarily expected to fulfil duties as wives and mothers. At the beginning of the Second World War, approximately 13 million women were in employment. By 1944, at the war's peak, this figure had increased to 19 million.
Many women assumed jobs previously held by men, though employers and male workers frequently regarded them as inferior employees. Eleanor Roosevelt, the First Lady, served as an influential advocate for female workers throughout the conflict.
Many positions women occupied during wartime were in traditionally male-dominated sectors: shipyards, aircraft factories, and munitions plants. Women constituted one in three aircraft workers and half of all those employed in electronics and munitions manufacturing. Notably, wages in munitions work could be double those typically paid to women in female-designated occupations.
Public attitudes and discrimination
A 1942 poll revealed that 60 per cent of Americans supported women contributing to war industries, though ambivalence about female employment persisted throughout the conflict. Some states enacted legislation mandating equal pay between men and women performing identical roles, whilst others attempted to protect women from workplace discrimination.
However, racial discrimination continued unchecked; African American women were, by and large, consistently the last to be hired. Numerous 'hate strikes' occurred, such as those at the Packard car factory in Detroit, specifically protesting the employment of African American women.
Wage disparities and post-war regression
Despite their contributions, women typically earned between 50 and 60 per cent of the wages men received for identical work. In 1944, the average weekly wage for working women stood at $31.21, compared to $56.65 for men. Additionally, women could still be dismissed from employment upon marriage.
At the war's conclusion, the majority of women relinquished their wartime positions and returned to traditional pre-1941 female roles. By 1945, despite some advances in women's status, substantial problems remained. Women were generally excluded from top-tier, well-paid positions, earned significantly less than men for equivalent work, and could be dismissed for marrying.
African Americans
Pre-war economic conditions
When war commenced, there was considerable optimism amongst African Americans that circumstances would improve. If the United States was combating fascism and racism abroad, how could it continue to discriminate against and deny civil rights to substantial portions of its own population?
In 1940, 12.9 million African Americans resided in the United States. The census indicated that approximately 5.4 million were employed, of whom 3.5 million were male. The vast majority occupied menial positions with low wages.
Economic Inequality in 1939:
The average annual wage stood at:
- African American men: $537
- African American women: $331
Both figures represented less than half those of their white counterparts, highlighting the severe economic discrimination faced by African Americans even before wartime employment expansion.
When war broke out in Europe, unemployment amongst whites stood at fourteen per cent. As war-related industries began seeking workers, whites were hired immediately, but unemployed African Americans did not benefit from this initial expansion.
Employment discrimination
A survey conducted by the US Employment Office in 1940 amongst defence industries revealed that more than half would not employ African Americans. In some instances, discrimination originated not simply from company owners but from their workers, who did not wish to work alongside African American employees.
The Double V Campaign
The Double V Campaign was an initiative launched by the African American newspaper Pittsburgh Courier after readers began commenting on the inferior status of African American workers during wartime.
'Double V' signified victory both at home—in terms of improved civil rights—and victory abroad against fascism and dictatorship. The newspaper promoted this campaign through numerous articles, letters, and photographs. The impact was immediate, with black newspapers across the United States endorsing the campaign, thereby raising the profile of civil rights.
The March on Washington Movement
A. Philip Randolph, amongst the most prominent African American activists and trade unionists, was appalled by discrimination not only in war industries but also in the armed forces. Randolph called for immediate action and sought to pressure the government into eliminating inequality.
He advocated direct action—the use of acts such as strikes, marches, and demonstrations to achieve political or social ends—and organised the March on Washington Movement. The march was expected to include up to 100,000 demonstrators, and if this were publicised globally, it could substantially undermine the United States' image as an upholder of liberty and democracy.
President Roosevelt was concerned that the march would discredit and embarrass not only the government but the entire nation. A compromise was eventually reached. Randolph cancelled the march, and Roosevelt issued Executive Order 8802, establishing the Fair Employment Practices Commission (FEPC) to prevent discrimination at work.
However, Randolph did not completely disband the March on Washington Movement. He continued encouraging African Americans to participate in protest rallies to ensure the discrimination issue remained prominent in public consciousness. He also promoted acts of civil disobedience—non-violent protest aimed at achieving political goals—to demonstrate opposition to laws permitting unfair and unequal treatment.
Fair Employment Practices Commission (FEPC)
The FEPC was established in June 1941 as a result of Executive Order 8802. Paragraph 3 of the order authorised the FEPC to investigate complaints and take action against alleged employment discrimination. As defence industry jobs increased, many African Americans migrated from the South seeking employment. They were joined by those from the North pursuing better-paid positions. Nevertheless, when African Americans were hired, most were still assigned menial roles.
By 1943, the FEPC had become aware of widespread discrimination across numerous companies. Roosevelt then issued Executive Order 9346, which granted the Commission greater powers and increased its budget to nearly half a million dollars.
FEPC Success Rates by Region:
The FEPC investigated approximately 8,000 instances of discrimination, achieving varying success rates:
- North-east: 66% success rate
- Mid-west: 62% success rate
- West: 55% success rate
These figures demonstrate both the Commission's effectiveness and the persistent challenges in combating employment discrimination.
African Americans and the armed forces
The war exposed the racism and discrimination embedded within the armed forces. Many African Americans enlisted in what became known as the Jim Crow army—a reference to the segregated military reflecting the segregation laws enacted by Southern states after the Civil War.
On occasions, African American soldiers received inferior training, had access to few recreational facilities, and endured racial slurs and even serious physical mistreatment. Moreover, many white officers believed that African American soldiers were undisciplined, morally deficient, mentally inferior, and even cowardly in battle.
African Americans predominantly performed menial non-combat tasks: cooking, guarding prisoners, delivering supplies, and constructing camps and roads. They found advancement difficult, and the highest rank most achieved was first lieutenant. As late as spring 1943, only 79,000 out of a total of 504,000 African American soldiers were stationed overseas, simply because white army commanders did not want them.
African Americans had not been permitted to enlist in the developing air force. However, in 1940, President Roosevelt ordered the air corps to recruit an all-African American flying unit. By the end of 1945, more than 600 pilots had been trained, though they were not allowed to fly in the same groups as whites.
The all-African American squadron was based in Tuskegee, Alabama, becoming known as the Tuskegee Airmen (332nd Fighter Group). They gained considerable acclaim, acting as fighter escorts for American bombers.
Discrimination was most severe in the Navy. African American sailors were assigned the most dangerous tasks, such as loading ammunition onto ships bound for war zones.
The Port Chicago Mutiny:
In July 1944, a catastrophic accident occurred at Port Chicago in California when ammunition being loaded onto two vessels detonated, killing 323 people—the majority of whom were African American sailors. Hundreds of African American sailors went on strike the following month, protesting the dangerous working conditions. This incident became known as the Port Chicago Mutiny; 50 sailors were arrested and imprisoned.
The Navy subsequently examined its treatment of African Americans in light of events at Port Chicago and began implementing changes that would contribute to desegregation in the force by 1946.
Progress and continuity
Throughout the Second World War, there was progress for African Americans in employment and the armed forces, and many became more actively engaged in campaigning for civil rights. Conversely, discrimination and segregation persisted as a way of life in the Southern states.
Women experienced increased employment opportunities during the war but faced persistent wage discrimination and largely returned to traditional roles afterwards. Japanese Americans endured forced relocation and internment despite many having family members serving in the American forces, suffering substantial economic losses and lasting psychological damage from their treatment.
Key Points to Remember:
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100,000 Japanese Americans were forcibly relocated to internment camps in 1942, suffering economic losses of $400 million and harsh conditions despite many having relatives serving in US forces.
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Female employment rose from 13 million to 19 million during the war, with women entering traditionally male industries, but they earned only 50-60% of men's wages and most returned to traditional roles after 1945.
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The Double V Campaign (1942) promoted victory at home against discrimination and victory abroad against fascism, raising the profile of civil rights amongst African Americans.
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A. Philip Randolph's threatened March on Washington in 1941 led Roosevelt to issue Executive Order 8802, creating the Fair Employment Practices Commission to investigate employment discrimination.
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African Americans faced severe discrimination in the segregated 'Jim Crow army', being assigned menial tasks and excluded from combat roles, though the Tuskegee Airmen (332nd Fighter Group) gained recognition as successful fighter pilots.