England at War, 1585–1604 (AQA A-Level History): Revision Notes

England at War, 1585–1604

The shift to open warfare

English foreign policy underwent a major transformation in 1584-85, moving from a strategy of maintaining independence from Spanish influence to engaging in direct military confrontation. This change occurred because the threat of a Spanish invasion became increasingly plausible due to two developments in continental Europe.

In the Netherlands, the assassination of William of Orange (known as 'the Silent') in 1584 removed the leader of the Protestant rebellion against Spanish control. Without his leadership, the Dutch revolt appeared vulnerable to collapse. Simultaneously, Philip II's military commander, the Duke of Parma, was successfully reclaiming large portions of the territory from Protestant forces.

In France, the death of the Duke of Alençon eliminated a potential ally who had been willing to challenge Spanish power in the Netherlands. This development pushed French Catholics closer to alliance with Spain, as the French line of succession now led to a Huguenot (Protestant) monarch. Elizabeth recognised that if the Dutch revolt collapsed entirely, Spain would control the northern cross-Channel frontier and could station a large, unoccupied army there. Furthermore, an alliance between France's Catholic faction and Spain threatened to enable a coordinated assault on England or undermine English attempts to use France as a buffer against Spanish aggression.

The Treaty of Nonsuch (1585)

Elizabeth's response was to provide direct military support to the Dutch rebels. Under the Treaty of Nonsuch, signed in 1585, she committed to an explicit agreement with the rebel government of the northern Netherlands provinces. England pledged 5,000 infantry troops and 1,000 cavalry units. In exchange, the Dutch transferred control of the key port towns of Flushing and Brill to England, and Elizabeth received the title of Protector of the Netherlands.

By dispatching the Earl of Leicester with English forces into the Netherlands, Elizabeth openly defied Philip II and effectively declared war on Spain. Simultaneously, she authorised Sir Francis Drake to lead a naval expedition targeting Spanish shipping routes in the Caribbean. This marked a decisive end to the period of informal hostility and began an era of open warfare.

The Spanish Armada (1588)

Armada refers to the Spanish term for an armed naval fleet. The most well-known episode of the Anglo-Spanish War was Spain's attempt to invade England in 1588. This year had long been anticipated as catastrophic in England, as astrologers had predicted it would bring the collapse of empires and global disaster. When news reached England in May that a Spanish armada had departed, panic spread rapidly. Many English people genuinely believed they faced annihilation.

Spanish invasion plans

Spain's strategy involved a complex multi-stage operation. The plan required troops to depart from Spain and sail to the Netherlands, where they would combine forces with additional soldiers before being transported across the Channel to invade England.

Flaws in the Spanish strategy

The Battle of Gravelines

English naval tactics proved decisive. The navy positioned itself to compel the Armada to sail directly into the Channel's south-westerly winds, enabling English vessels to deploy long-range artillery against the Spanish fleet. When the Armada attempted to shelter along the French coast, English forces used fire-ships (vessels deliberately ignited and directed towards enemy ships to create panic and destruction) to scatter the Spanish formation.

The Battle of Gravelines occurred on 29 July off the Flanders coast. Though the encounter left the Duke of Medina Sidonia with no option except to withdraw from English waters and order a retreat, he lacked sufficient gunfire to achieve this safely. The surviving vessels were forced to undertake a perilous journey around the western coast of Ireland and northern Scotland. Severe storms caused the destruction of numerous ships along this route, and fewer than half the original fleet managed to return to Spain.

Propaganda and perception

The Armada's defeat was celebrated as a magnificent English triumph against a superior enemy force. It appeared to demonstrate divine approval of Elizabeth's government and the Anglican Church it had established. Elizabeth quickly recognised the propaganda potential of this victory, as contemporary artistic representations like the 'Armada Portrait' demonstrate.

Long-term consequences

Continuation of conflict (1589–1598)

Warfare continued as Elizabeth dispatched Drake to Portugal in 1589 for a counter-offensive. He landed with 15,000 soldiers and 130 vessels, intending to expel the Spanish forces. However, no Portuguese uprising materialised in their support, and the English were compelled to withdraw after failing to capture Lisbon. Drake suffered substantial losses, primarily through disease, and returned to England under a cloud of disappointment.

English forces maintained attacks on Spanish bullion transport ships, though with diminishing effectiveness as Spain developed a convoy protection system. In 1591, Sir Richard Grenville aboard the Revenge was encircled by a Spanish fleet, resulting in his death and the deaths of most of his crew.

French involvement

Elizabeth's attention increasingly turned towards Northern Europe rather than Spain itself. In France, Henry IV, a Huguenot, ascended to the throne in 1589. Elizabeth viewed him as a potentially valuable ally. When the Duke of Parma invaded France from the Spanish Netherlands in 1590, Elizabeth responded in 1592 by sending an English force to Normandy to support Henry. This expedition was commanded by the twenty-six-year-old Robert Devereux, Earl of Essex. He accomplished nothing of substance and withdrew the following year.

Caribbean and Spanish raids

Further military expeditions departed England in 1595, when Drake and Hawkins led an expedition to the Caribbean. This venture marked a tragic conclusion to their distinguished careers, as Hawkins died at sea and Drake perished in the Caribbean.

In 1596, Lord Howard of Effingham, accompanied by Walter Raleigh and the Earl of Essex, conducted a raid on Spain. With 80,000 soldiers they captured Cadiz and destroyed approximately 50 vessels. Essex advocated establishing a permanent military base there, but was overruled by other commanders.

Further Armada attempts

A second Spanish Armada, which intended to invade via Ireland, was scattered by storms in October 1596, with the surviving vessels returning to Spain. By this point, Philip II had officially declared bankruptcy. Essex and Raleigh attempted to replicate their successful Cadiz operation in 1597, but encountered disaster due to internal disputes and adverse weather conditions. That same year, Philip's third attempt at launching an Armada failed due to weather conditions.

Treaty of Vervins

In 1598, the Treaty of Vervins was concluded between Spain and France, signed just before Philip II's death. The war between England and Spain persisted, particularly as the Dutch continued their armed struggle against Spanish authority.

The Irish question (1601)

During the final years of Elizabeth's reign, Ireland became the primary concern. In the third Armada of 1601, Spanish forces successfully landed troops in Ireland, which were eventually overcome by English forces. The conflict continued, with a peace treaty signed in 1604. The Dutch rebels achieved independence from Spain in 1609, with the Spanish maintaining control of what became known as the Spanish Netherlands.

Assessment of Elizabeth's foreign policy

Apparent successes

At first examination, Elizabeth appeared demonstrably successful. She reigned for nearly half a century without England suffering invasion. The foundations of England's future empire were established through initial trading relationships with India and beyond. The nation's economic interests were advanced by developing networks for overseas commerce.

Economic costs and consequences

However, warfare imposed severe economic hardship on England. The economic depression of the 1590s resulted partly from the loss of legitimate trade with Spanish territories and partly from poor harvests throughout that decade.

Historical assessment

Key dates: England at war 1585-1604

• 1585: Warfare with Spain, though not formally proclaimed
• 1587: Drake's attack on Cadiz harbour
• 1588: Spanish Armada defeated
• 1589: Drake conducted a failed expedition to Portugal
• 1595: Drake and Hawkins led expedition to Caribbean
• 1596–97: Attacks on Spain and attempted Spanish Armadas
• 1598: Death of Philip II
• 1601: Fourth Spanish Armada landed in Ireland
• 1604: Peace treaty between England and Spain