Tensions Between England and Spain, 1558–88 (AQA A-Level History): Revision Notes
Tensions Between England and Spain, 1558–88
Context of Elizabethan foreign policy
During the opening years of Elizabeth I's reign, England faced potential threats from several quarters. Scotland posed problems due to the presence of a regent acting for the young James VI, while France remained embroiled in internal religious conflicts. Spain, under Philip II, had initially hoped to maintain England as an ally through a proposed marriage alliance. However, by the late 1560s, the European political landscape had shifted markedly. Spain emerged as the primary threat to English security, overshadowing earlier concerns about Scotland and France.
The Netherlands question
Spanish inheritance and governance
Charles V's Habsburg inheritance encompassed vast territories across Europe, with the Netherlands occupying a central position. In 1555, Charles insisted these provinces should pass to his son Philip II, creating immediate governance challenges. Spain and the Netherlands were separated by hundreds of miles, yet were vastly different in other respects. The provinces that constituted the Netherlands operated with considerable autonomy, governed by local nobles who resented Philip II's bureaucratic style of centralised rule.
Spain held the position of Europe's foremost Catholic power, and Philip II regarded himself as one of the faith's staunchest defenders. The Netherlands, however, contained an expanding population of Calvinist converts, creating a fundamental religious tension that would drive much of the conflict.
After a decade of Spanish rule, tensions within the Netherlands escalated into civil war in 1566. Philip II responded by adopting an uncompromising stance, declaring:
"Before suffering the slightest damage to religion and the service of God, I would rather lose all my states, and a hundred lives if I had them, because I do not propose to be the ruler of heretics."
He dispatched the Duke of Alba with 10,000 troops to restore order, which they accomplished through severe measures. This brutal suppression helped establish the Black Legend – a Protestant narrative that associated Spanish power with violent intolerance and strict royal control at the expense of people's liberties.
The Black Legend generated widespread fear of Spain and strengthened Protestant nations' determination to resist Counter-Reformation influence. This powerful propaganda tool would shape European perceptions of Spanish power for centuries to come.
English strategic and economic interests
The Netherlands held substantial strategic and economic value for England:
Economic factors: Much of England's export trade in cloth was conducted through Netherlands ports, particularly Antwerp. English merchants depended on these commercial networks for their prosperity.
Strategic factors: English national security rested on preventing powerful continental states from controlling the coastline across the Channel. Throughout the Tudor period, this security principle had been undermined as France and Spain gained greater control. France had defeated Brittany during Henry VII's reign as part of the French monarchy's expansion. Philip II had inherited the Netherlands in 1555, while Calais had been lost to the French in 1558. These developments made any Spanish invasion of England more feasible.
Critical Strategic Principle
Preventing Spain from recovering control when rebellion erupted in the Netherlands became a matter of overwhelming importance. Elizabeth held limited sympathy for the Dutch rebels' cause – they were, after all, rebelling against legitimate government. However, she recognised that England's interests were better served by encouraging the rebellion rather than openly antagonising Spain.
The intervention debate
This policy of covert support (such as allowing English ships to dock in English ports or English privateers to disrupt supplies destined for Alba's army) received backing from the 'peace party' within the Privy Council, who believed open war against Spain exceeded England's capabilities. A second faction of courtiers, led by the Earl of Leicester and Francis Walsingham, advocated military action.
This debate between these opposing positions continued for nearly 20 years until a genuine crisis was reached in 1584–85, forcing Elizabeth to commit the country to war. The tension between these two approaches reflected the genuine difficulty of Elizabeth's position: England lacked the resources for full-scale war, yet her security interests demanded active resistance to Spanish expansion.
Progressive breakdown of Anglo-Spanish relations
The deterioration of Anglo-Spanish relations occurred gradually rather than through a single decisive rupture. Neither Elizabeth nor Philip II desired this outcome initially, but it became unavoidable due to several interconnected factors: the situation concerning Mary Queen of Scots, the papal excommunication of Elizabeth in 1570, and developments in the Netherlands. The reasons for breakdown extended beyond disagreements over the Netherlands. Some arose from religious differences (see religious policies), while others stemmed from activities of Elizabethan seamen who were perceived as pirates.
Key events, 1559–68
- 1559 – Marriage proposal: Philip II offered to marry Elizabeth, representing more of a diplomatic gesture than a sincere offer. The proposal demonstrated support for Elizabeth's position.
- 1562 – Huguenot intervention: Philip protested to Elizabeth regarding her support for Huguenot rebels against the Catholic government in France. Elizabeth maintained her response by keeping her troops from joining with the Huguenot army in Northern France, thereby avoiding direct confrontation.
- 1563 – Cloth trade ban: Philip's government in the Netherlands banned imports of English cloths. Officially, this measure aimed to protect the Netherlands against plague infection from England. The ban reflected annoyance that the balance of trade had turned in England's favour, while Elizabeth turned a blind eye to piracy in the Channel and to English merchants spreading Protestant ideas in the Netherlands. Elizabeth responded by prohibiting all imports from the Netherlands, with both sides backing down and normalising trade relations in 1564.
The 1563 cloth trade crisis demonstrated how economic disputes could rapidly escalate into diplomatic confrontations, foreshadowing more serious conflicts to come.
- 1566–67 – Revolt of the Netherlands: Outbreak of rebellion prompted Spanish action. The Duke of Alba travelled to the Netherlands to crush rioting by Calvinists and restore firm government. This action suddenly alarmed England's northern coast that Alba's army might be turned against them once its work in the Netherlands was completed (possibly with French aid if they won the civil war).
- 1568 – Ambassador expulsion: Spain expelled the English ambassador from Madrid and replaced its own ambassador in London with a more hard-line Catholic, De Spes. Added to tensions of the previous year, although the changes were ostensibly for innocent reasons, De Spes established contact with Mary Queen of Scots.
- 1568 – Caribbean attacks: In the Caribbean, Spanish government ships attacked John Hawkins' fleet because it was trespassing on Spain's monopoly of the Atlantic slave trade. This marked the first of several issues that would become a major source of Spanish grievances.
- 1568 – Bullion seizure: In December, Elizabeth seized bullion being transported through the Channel for Alba's army. Alba's army was already owed pay, and this action created a genuine crisis. Alba retaliated by confiscating all English ships docked at ports in the Netherlands. Elizabeth responded by banning all trade with the Netherlands and Spain. Trade was not fully restored until 1573.
The 1568 Bullion Crisis
The seizure of bullion represented a turning point in Anglo-Spanish relations. This was not merely an economic dispute but a direct intervention in Spanish military operations. The resulting trade embargo lasted five years and demonstrated how quickly relations could deteriorate.
Key events, 1569–76
- 1569 – Northern Earls' conspiracy: De Spes negotiated with the northern earls, encouraging their rebellion to place Mary on the throne. This demonstrated that Philip II's official ambassador was plotting against Elizabeth.
- 1570 – Papal excommunication: The Pope formally excommunicated Elizabeth and declared her deposed. Repression of English Catholics began to prevent them from carrying out the Pope's wishes. Philip had not been involved in this decision and was genuinely angry that it had been taken – he refused to allow publication of the decision within his territories.
The papal excommunication placed English Catholics in an impossible position: they were forced to choose between their religious allegiance and their loyalty to the Crown. This increased Elizabeth's suspicions of her Catholic subjects and led to intensified persecution.
- 1570 – Marriage diplomacy: Elizabeth began to consider marriage to the Duke of Anjou, one of the brothers of King Charles IX of France, as a way of preventing France and Spain from acting together against her. Elizabeth, aged nearly 40, was still using her possible marriage as a diplomatic tool.
- 1571 – Ridolfi Plot: Discovery of the Ridolfi Plot – an uprising to overthrow Elizabeth in favour of Mary with Spanish military support – implicated both Philip and De Spes. De Spes was expelled, and repression of Catholics in England intensified.
- 1572 – Treaty of Blois: This treaty replaced the idea of marriage to Duke of Anjou with an informal Anglo-French defensive alliance against Spain. However, it quickly foundered because Elizabeth was not prepared to go to war in the Netherlands to support French ambitions. England continued to give unofficial support to the Huguenots, particularly after the Massacre of St Bartholomew in France in 1572 when thousands of Huguenots were killed.
- 1572 – Spanish Fury: Intensification of civil war in the Netherlands occurred when rebels seized the port of Brill. Elizabeth was accused by Spain of encouraging the rebels by providing them safe harbour and allowing English volunteers to support the rebellion.
- 1576 – Mutiny crisis: Unpaid Spanish soldiers mutinied in the Netherlands in the 'Spanish Fury', ransacking towns across the country. Elizabeth was urged by Leicester to send troops into the Netherlands, but she would only agree to financial help.
Key events, 1579–85
- 1579 – Parma's offensive: A new Spanish commander, the Duke of Parma, began to recover lands lost in the Netherlands to the rebels. This increased the danger to England of a possible Spanish invasion.
- 1580 – Portuguese Crown: Philip II inherited the Portuguese Crown and its overseas empire in Africa and Asia. Spain now controlled both of the huge overseas empires that had developed in the sixteenth century.
Philip's inheritance of Portugal dramatically shifted the European balance of power. Spain's control of both major overseas empires gave it unprecedented wealth and naval resources, making it an even more formidable threat to England.
- 1581 – Funding resistance: Elizabeth began to fund resistance to Parma in the Netherlands. Philip became aware of what Elizabeth was doing and began to think seriously of an attack on England.
- 1583–84 – Throckmorton Plot: Spanish ambassador Mendoza was expelled after being implicated in the Throckmorton Plot to overthrow Elizabeth and install Mary as queen. War between England and Spain was becoming closer, particularly with the activities of English privateers capturing Spanish treasure fleets.
- 1584 – Treaty of Joinville: Death of Henry III's last brother and heir put the Huguenot Henry of Navarre next in line to the French throne. Catholics were alarmed enough at this to approach Spain for assistance. This treaty was particularly important because it gave Philip the impression that if he attacked England, France would not react.
The Point of No Return
The Treaty of Joinville removed one of the key factors that had previously restrained Philip from attacking England: the threat of French intervention. With France apparently neutralised by its own internal religious conflicts, the path to war became clear.
- 1585 – Treaty of Nonsuch: Parma's success in recovering territory finally convinced Elizabeth that action was needed. She agreed to send 7,000 troops under the Earl of Leicester to maintain the rebellion. This marked the unofficial start of the Anglo-Spanish war.
Themes in the breakdown of relations
Religion and ideology
Religious differences formed a central thread running through the deteriorating relationship. Philip II viewed himself as a defender of Catholicism and could not tolerate heresy within his territories. The papal excommunication of 1570 placed English Catholics in an impossible position and prompted Elizabeth to intensify persecution of Catholics, creating a cycle of mutual suspicion.
Protestant propaganda, including artistic depictions such as Pieter Breughel's paintings of Alba's military government's brutality in the Netherlands, helped establish the Black Legend. This legend associated Spanish power and the Catholic Church with violent intolerance and strict royal control at the expense of people's liberties. It created powerful fear of Spain and determination within Protestant nations such as England to check the spread of Counter-Reformation values.
Economic competition and trade disputes
Economic tensions repeatedly inflamed Anglo-Spanish relations. The cloth trade ban of 1563 demonstrated how commercial disagreements could escalate into diplomatic crises. English merchants operating in the Netherlands were not merely trading; they were also spreading Protestant ideas, which Spanish authorities found unacceptable. The seizure of bullion in 1568 represented the most serious economic crisis, leading to a complete trade embargo that lasted until 1573.
Strategic imperatives
English national security depended on ensuring that no powerful countries controlled the coastline across the Channel. The loss of Calais in 1558, combined with Spanish control of the Netherlands and potential French hostility, created a strategic nightmare for England. Any consolidation of Spanish power in the Netherlands threatened to make an invasion of England more feasible.
England's Strategic Dilemma
Elizabeth faced an impossible strategic situation: she needed to prevent Spanish consolidation in the Netherlands to protect England's security, yet lacked the military and financial resources to confront Spain directly. This forced her to pursue the risky middle path of covert support for rebels.
The Netherlands rebellion as catalyst
The Dutch Revolt served as the primary arena where Anglo-Spanish tensions played out. Elizabeth's cautious policy of covert support – allowing English ports to harbour rebel ships and English volunteers to join the rebellion – represented a carefully calibrated response. She sought to maintain the rebellion without openly antagonising Spain, recognising that she was supporting rebels against a legitimate government. This delicate balancing act could not be sustained indefinitely, particularly as Parma began recovering territory in 1579.
Key Points to Remember:
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Anglo-Spanish relations deteriorated gradually over nearly three decades (1559–85) through a series of interconnected crises rather than one decisive break.
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The Netherlands question combined strategic, economic, and religious dimensions: England depended on Dutch ports for cloth trade, needed to prevent Spanish control of the Channel coast, and sympathised with Protestant rebels while recognising the dangers of supporting rebellion against legitimate authority.
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Philip II's religious intolerance, demonstrated by his famous declaration that he would "rather lose all my states" than rule heretics, drove his brutal suppression of Dutch Calvinists through the Duke of Alba, creating the 'Black Legend' of Spanish cruelty.
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Elizabeth pursued a cautious policy of covert support for Dutch rebels and financial aid rather than military intervention until 1585, attempting to balance England's strategic interests against the risk of open war with Europe's most powerful Catholic state.
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The Treaty of Nonsuch (1585) marked the point when Elizabeth finally committed England to war, sending 7,000 troops under Leicester to support the Dutch rebellion after Parma's military successes convinced her that England faced imminent danger of Spanish invasion.