Henry Becomes King (AQA A-Level History): Revision Notes

Henry Becomes King

The English monarchy had experienced substantial instability throughout much of the fifteenth century. The circumstances surrounding Henry Tudor's rise to power were far from straightforward, and there was no clear reason to assume he would succeed in establishing a lasting dynasty. The odds against him were considerable, making his eventual success all the more remarkable rather than predetermined.

Background of Henry Tudor

Henry Tudor possessed a notably weak claim to the throne of England. His connection to royalty came through his mother, Margaret Beaufort, who descended from Edward III through the marriage of Edward's third son, John of Gaunt. This claim was already weakened by the fact that John Beaufort, Margaret's grandfather, had been born before John of Gaunt married Catherine Swynford. Henry's royal lineage was further complicated on his father's side: his grandmother, Catherine, had been married to Henry V before she married Owen Tudor, Henry's grandfather. This marriage had resulted in Edmund and Jasper Tudor being created as half-brothers to Henry VI and subsequently raised to the rank of Earls.

Henry was born in 1457, the son of Edmund Tudor, Earl of Richmond, who died several months before his son's birth. Following his father's death, Henry spent his early years with his mother and uncle, Jasper Tudor. The Wars of the Roses dramatically altered Henry's prospects: after various deaths occurred during the conflict, Henry unexpectedly became the main Lancastrian claimant to the throne. His uncle Jasper took him to safety in France, where Henry spent the next fourteen years in exile. For most of this period, he remained in Brittany, which at that time maintained independence from the French government.

The Wars of the Roses: context and consequences

The Wars of the Roses refers to the fifteenth-century power struggle between groups of nobles under the banners of Lancaster and York who sought to control the Crown. The conflict escalated particularly during the reign of Henry VI (1422-61), when two major family factions competed for dominance. Although some quite large battles took place, many of the conflicts were limited skirmishes with little physical destruction, and the fighting was not continuous. However, the open hostility encouraged violence, instability and weakness throughout society. Many nobles exploited this period of weak royal authority to seize greater control over their local territories.

The situation in 1483-1485

King Edward IV continued to feel threatened by a potential claimant residing abroad and possibly gaining foreign support. Edward attempted negotiations to secure Henry's return from exile, but these efforts failed. There is no evidence that Henry attempted to challenge Edward's right to be King during this period.

The situation transformed suddenly in 1483 when Edward IV died. His brother, Richard, Duke of Gloucester, was expected to become Regent, ruling on behalf of Edward's sons. Instead, Richard proclaimed himself King, thereby denying the succession to his nephew, the young Edward V. The young princes, Edward and Richard, were imprisoned in the Tower of London and disappeared.

Richard's seizure of the throne generated greater disunity throughout the country, and his ruthless methods provoked substantial opposition. An unsuccessful rebellion by the Duke of Buckingham further weakened Richard's authority. At this point, Henry Tudor, until then a distant claimant living in exile in France, decided to invade. Initially he planned to support Buckingham's rebellion, but after that rebellion was defeated, he resolved to seek the throne himself. Whereas Henry had been a distant claimant living in exile in France against the strong rule of Edward IV, he had now become a potential rival to the unpopular Richard III.

Battle of Bosworth, August 1485

Henry departed from France on 1 August 1485 with a modest army of English supporters and French soldiers. They landed near Pembroke in Wales and marched north then east towards the English border. He secured the support of Rhys ap Thomas, one of the most powerful landowners in Wales, by promising to make him Lieutenant of Wales and thereby gained more soldiers. He acquired additional supporters as he marched towards Shrewsbury and then further into the Midlands. Even then his forces could not match those of Richard III who was based at Nottingham Castle.

On the morning of 22 August 1485 the five thousand-strong army assembled by Henry Tudor, Earl of Richmond, met the royal army commanded by King Richard III in battle at Bosworth Field, near Leicester. The battle was fought in the area on and around a hill near the village of Bosworth. Richard III's forces had arrived first and had secured the better position. The King had positioned most of his archers, protected by foot soldiers, on the hillside where they could fire down on Henry's advancing men. Richard himself led the cavalry.

The Earl of Northumberland was also present at the battle, but he too had refused to take part until the outcome was clearer. When the battle began, Henry's foot soldiers advanced towards the hill whilst the royal forces fired arrows at them and Richard's cavalry attacked them from the sides. Henry's forces grouped together to defend themselves and in the midst of the confusion the Duke of Norfolk, one of Richard's commanders, was killed. At this point the two sides disengaged and Henry assessed the situation. He recognised that it was only a matter of time before Richard's superior forces wore his men down, so he decided to approach the Stanleys to request them to join him.

Richard observed what was happening and led his personal guard to attack Henry as he rode out to the Stanleys. Richard came extremely close to success: his men killed Henry's standard bearer and nearly reached Henry himself. However, at that moment Sir William Stanley decided to take action. He ordered his cavalry to attack Richard, who was caught completely by surprise. The King was thrown from his horse, but he ordered that another should be brought to him. Meanwhile, the Earl of Northumberland still remained off to the side of the battlefield, choosing not to protect his King.

Richard rejoined the fight but was cut down and killed, becoming the last English king to die in battle. Once their leader was dead, the royal forces broke up in confusion and fled. According to legend, a soldier found Richard III's golden crown in a thorn bush near where the King had fallen. He brought it to Thomas Stanley who placed it on Henry's head, crowning him 'Henry VII, King of England' amid the fallen bodies and blood. With the 28-year-old Earl of Richmond seizing the crown, the Tudor family replaced the House of York as the ruling dynasty in England and Wales.

Evidence about the Battle of Bosworth Field

Although Bosworth Field is one of the most famous battles fought on English soil, few accounts survive to tell historians precisely what happened. All surviving accounts are secondhand, written after the battle from stories heard at court or by foreign observers who collected information for other rulers. Unsurprisingly, the details of the battle vary considerably between accounts. The number of troops at Richard's disposal, for example, was estimated as high as 20,000 and as low as 10,000. Writers disagree about which magnates were present at the battle and about what they did. They even disagree about exactly where the battle was fought – at Bosworth, or closer to the market town of Dadlington, a mile and a half away.

Magnate – a term describing a member of the greater nobility (the barons) who owned large estates. The greater families had consolidated their holdings through marriage and family links, building up a territorial base where they effectively governed in the king's name.

Discovery of Richard III's remains

The skeleton of Richard III was found in September 2012 underneath a car park in the centre of Leicester. The search had used old maps to locate the site of Grey Friars Church where Richard had been hastily buried in 1485. By February 2013 there was conclusive proof that the skeleton was that of Richard III. The physical appearance reconstructed from the skeleton was similar to contemporary descriptions. The remains showed extensive injuries received in battle. The conclusive proof, however, was provided by DNA testing using a seventeenth-generation descendant living in Canada. The city of Leicester assumed that re-burial would take place there. However, there was a powerful lobby for this to happen in York as Richard III lived most of his life in Yorkshire. A court decision in May 2014 agreed that the skeleton should stay in Leicester, and the re-interment ceremony took place in March 2015.

Accession of Henry VII

Taking the crown from Richard did not end the difficulties facing Henry VII. Keeping hold of his new position was likely to prove extremely challenging, and the omens were not favourable. As the story of Henry's early life demonstrates, English politics in the later fifteenth century had been dominated by the struggle between the rival families of Lancaster and York over who should rule. In the midst of these battles, which had been fought on and off since 1455, the status and authority of the monarchy had suffered.

Henry's seizure of the crown in 1485 could be viewed by contemporaries as just another example of the instability of the times, similar to the actions of Edward IV in 1461 or Richard III in 1483, rather than marking the point at which the monarchy became more stable. Henry's own claim to the throne was weak. Although he had won the crown by right of conquest this was not sufficient to guarantee him loyalty across the kingdom unless he could enforce it further.

Threats to Henry's position

Although Richard and his nephews in the Tower were dead, the House of York lived on through the de la Pole brothers. Edward IV's sister, Elizabeth, had married John de la Pole, Duke of Suffolk. Their two sons, John (Earl of Lincoln) and Edmund (Earl of Suffolk) had a claim to the crown at least as valid as Henry's own.

Another threat to Henry VII came from Margaret of Burgundy. She was Edward IV's mother, and had married the Duke of Burgundy. Burgundy was a powerful dukedom in what is now part of the Netherlands and France, and an important trading partner with England. Margaret, with the help of her husband, the Duke, quickly showed support for the Yorkists against Henry at various times during his reign.

Advantages in Henry's favour

Nonetheless, Henry possessed some advantages. Although the disputes between the Lancastrians and Yorkists had encouraged lawlessness and crime, their wars also meant that members of the greater nobility were engaged in mutual destruction. The death of many noble heirs had allowed their lands to be returned to the Crown, while the misfortune of being on the losing side had allowed others to be punished and disinherited as traitors. Those beneath the warring great houses – the gentry, merchants and landowning farmers – were tired of the disruption that a generation of sudden changes in political power had brought and were ready to support the recovery of royal power as the best means of restoring order and prosperity.

Henry also had some personal advantages. He was an adult and had recently proven himself both as a leader and as a successful soldier (even if his victory in 1485 was not entirely due to him). These were admirable qualities and were likely to lessen opposition to his claim to the Crown. He was an only child, with no fear of the family rivalry that had shaped events when Edward IV had died. His obscure Welsh origins and years of exile in France also helped because they meant that he had few personal enemies in high places.

Henry VII establishes his right to the throne

After the Battle of Bosworth Field, Henry moved rapidly to legitimise his claims by being officially crowned as king and by marrying Elizabeth of York.

Coronation and divine approval

The coronation of a monarch was more than simply a public ceremony to confirm his or her power; it signified the approval of the Church and, through this, of God himself. In feudal law the coronation required the nobility to swear an oath of loyalty to the king, which could not be broken. Since Anglo-Saxon times the ceremony had conferred a divine status that defined rebellion as a sin against God as well as a crime against the State. The speed of Henry's coronation was therefore a safety measure as well as a symbol that he claimed the crown as a legitimate heir, not just through battle.

The marriage, however, was an essential part of his strategy to win support. Elizabeth was the daughter of Edward IV so the union symbolised the reconciliation between the families of Lancaster and York. Elizabeth soon gave birth to a son, Prince Arthur, in September 1486. This helped to establish a future for the new Tudor dynasty, creating a greater sense of permanence about the change that had taken place in 1485.

Royal progress and demonstrating authority

To cement his power further, Henry summoned Parliament (the traditional act of a new king) in November 1485 and embarked on a royal progress to the north in April 1486. The progress was essentially a tour of the kingdom by the monarch and his court. During the progress it was traditional for the king to hear petitions and cases and to grant justice and favours. In this way, he could demonstrate his royal power and presence to his subjects.

Rewarding supporters and consolidating power

Henry displayed tactical and political awareness in his handling both of his nobility after his victory. His supporters were well rewarded:

• John de Vere, who had joined him in France, became Earl of Oxford
• Lord Stanley was honoured for deserting Richard at Bosworth with the title Earl of Derby, and the hand of Henry's mother in marriage
• His uncle, Jasper Tudor (now Duke of Bedford) represented royal authority in Wales
• Sir William Stanley became Lord Chamberlain
• John Morton became Lord Chancellor from 1486 to 1500 and later Archbishop of Canterbury and a cardinal

Cardinal – one of the senior officials of the Catholic Church, having the right to vote in the election of a Pope. Cardinals were appointed by the Pope, usually with the approval of the monarch. In return for wealth, status and the protection of its privileges, the Church provided monarchs with an educated force of trained administrators and a cheap way of rewarding those who served them well.

Handling opponents

Henry's handling of his opponents was also carefully balanced. He dated his reign from 21 August, the day before the battle at Bosworth, which allowed him to treat Richard's supporters as traitors. He imprisoned Yorkists with a better claim to the throne than his own, such as the young Earl of Warwick, in the Tower of London and left them there. Nobles whose loyalty was suspect were stripped of their lands and titles, but Henry was shrewd enough to realise that by showing leniency he would win at least the gratitude, and possibly the loyalty, of these families.

Key figure: John Morton (1420-1500)

Morton was born in 1420 and supported the Lancastrians until disaster befell Henry VI at the Battle of Tewkesbury in 1471. He then shrewdly switched sides and became a strong ally of Edward IV. He joined the Royal Council in 1473 and was appointed Bishop of Ely in 1479. However, when Richard III seized the throne Morton was one of the men who resisted him. His activities during Richard's reign marked him out as a true friend of Henry Tudor. He warned Henry of Richard's attempt to arrest and remove him from Brittany in 1485, giving the future king time to escape to the French court. He also voiced his criticism of Richard's government and solicited support for Henry from discontented Yorkist nobles.

Morton was 65 when Henry took the throne – nearly 40 years older than the King. Despite the age difference, Henry regarded him as a close friend and ally. He appointed Morton as Lord Chancellor (the closest post to being Chief Minister at the time) and in 1486 he became Archbishop of Canterbury, the most senior religious office in England and Wales. In 1493 the Pope made him a cardinal.

Henry VII's character

Henry VII's character was moulded by his upbringing. He was astute and clear-thinking, but not sentimental. He was respected, but not popular.

Contemporary source evidence

Source E – From the Books of English History (Anglicae Historicae Libri) by Polydore Vergil (1534). Vergil was an Italian diplomat who came to England in 1502 and was commissioned by Henry to write a history of England. His account of Henry's character is believed to be among the most reliable because Vergil knew Henry personally; quoted in Henry VII by R. Lockyer (1983).

Source F – History of the Reign of King Henry VII by Francis Bacon, written in 1622.

Both sources present aspects of Henry's character. Polydore Vergil, writing closer to Henry's lifetime and with personal knowledge of the King, presents a portrait of a ruler who was wise, prudent, brave and concerned with justice. Francis Bacon, writing well over a century after Henry's death, creates the impression of a strong king who projected an aura of majesty. According to Bacon, Henry appears to set himself apart from other men and to keep power jealously to himself.

The reality of Henry VII's reign was less glamorous. He came to the throne by killing his rival and snatching the crown, and he went on to rule efficiently, but with a constant fear that the same thing might one day happen to him. Historians have taken different views of his character and the scale of his achievements.