The Beginnings of Change (AQA A-Level History): Revision Notes
The Beginnings of Change
Introduction: intellectual shifts in the early sixteenth century
During the early sixteenth century, attitudes and beliefs began to shift, though not completely. Influences from Europe prompted educated individuals to reconsider established ways of thinking. These intellectual developments occurred alongside growing awareness of Church shortcomings and would later intersect with religious reform movements.
This period represents a transitional era where traditional medieval thinking began to coexist with new Renaissance ideas. The changes were gradual and initially affected only educated elites rather than the broader population.
Humanism
Humanism was a cultural and intellectual movement that emerged during the Renaissance in Italy and spread to England in the fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries. At its core, humanism emphasised human potential and capacity for improvement through education, study of classical texts, and intellectual inquiry.
Renaissance ideas reach England
Renaissance thinking focused on mankind's abilities and achievements. Scholars sought to enhance human knowledge and conduct through learning. Classical literature, architecture and philosophy became subjects of intense study and discussion. This intellectual movement, later termed 'humanism', emerged from Renaissance optimism about human progress and possibility.
Humanist scholarship was not entirely novel. Scholars in the fifteenth century had already examined classical and medieval texts by authors including Plato, Aristotle, Cicero and Plutarch. Some travelled to Italian universities, attended lectures, and returned with copies of classical and medieval manuscripts. Italian scholars reciprocated by coming to England and teaching at Oxford and Cambridge.
Over 100 endowed schools were established in England during the fifteenth century, many reflecting humanist influence. Greek was introduced into the Oxford curriculum, benefiting a generation of scholars. This represented a significant expansion of educational opportunities and a shift toward classical learning.
Henry VII and humanist culture
Henry VII acted as patron to the arts. He commissioned writers, poets, musicians and artists, including those from Europe. Polydore Vergil was commissioned to write a history of England that traced the country's development up to Tudor rule. Poets such as John Skelton wrote enthusiastically about England's situation under the wise governance of Henry VII. John Colet, Dean of St Paul's Cathedral, founded St Paul's School. William Grocyn taught Greek at Oxford University, stimulating interest in studying Plato and other Classical writers.
Henry VII's own children received education reflecting Renaissance values, with emphasis on foreign languages, classics, music and religion, alongside courtly skills such as dancing and hunting. This royal endorsement helped legitimise humanist educational principles among the nobility.
Humanist concerns about the Church
Humanists engaged with religious debate in England because they were troubled by poor standards among the parish clergy and sought to improve educational provision for both clergy and laity (people who had not been ordained as priests). They criticised the Church's exploitation of practices such as veneration of saints and the sale of indulgences (documents issued under papal authority that cancelled punishment in purgatory) to generate income.
Humanists objected that this exploitation diverted souls from God whilst raising money spent on luxuries for senior clergy rather than education or charitable endeavours. This critique would later become a central theme in calls for Church reform.
William Melton, a Cambridge scholar and Chancellor of York Minster from 1496 to 1528, exemplifies this concern. His studies convinced him that many parish clergy lacked proper training and discipline. This theme was echoed by his associate John Colet.
Source Evidence: William Melton's Critique of the Clergy
From William Melton's Exhortation, published at the beginning of Henry VIII's reign, translated from a Latin sermon to trainee priests at York Minster:
"Everywhere throughout city and countryside there exists a crop of oafish and boorish priests, some of whom are engaged in ignoble and servile tasks, while others abandon themselves to tavernhaunting, swilling and drunkenness. Some cannot live along without their wenches; others pursue their amusement in dice and gambling and other such trifling all day long. There are some who waste their time in hunting and hawking... This is inevitable, for since they are all completely ignorant of good literature, how can they obtain improvement or enjoyment in reading and study? We must avoid and keep far from ourselves that grasping, deadly plague of avarice for which practically every priest is accused and held in disrepute before the people, when it is said that we are greedy for rich promotions... and spend little or nothing on works of piety..."
This source reveals the depth of humanist concern about clerical standards and illustrates the specific behaviours that troubled reformers.
Erasmus's influence in England
In 1499 Erasmus, a celebrated Dutch humanist scholar, visited England for the first time. He encountered scholars with whom he shared intellectual sympathy. One was John Skelton, a poet and linguist who later tutored the future Henry VIII. Skelton's flamboyant demeanour and wit broadened Henry's intellectual horizons. Erasmus also admired John Colet, Dean of St Paul's Cathedral and founder of St Paul's School. Colet had travelled in Italy and been deeply affected by witnessing wealth and extravagance in the Church. Returning to England, he delivered lectures about St Paul that included forthright denunciations of Church abuses and clerical corruption. Thomas More, who later became Chancellor to Henry VIII in 1530, was another humanist Erasmus encountered.
Erasmus spent several years in England, briefly in 1499 and then at Oxford between 1504 and 1506. He was subsequently based at Queens' College, Cambridge in the early years of Henry VIII's reign. He wielded enormous influence across Europe and to some degree in England through his wide network of influential writers. Many works were published, encouraging learning and reform within the Catholic Church.
Erasmus's published works
In 1500 Erasmus published The Adages, adapting ancient Roman proverbs and making them applicable to contemporary life, urging readers to live wisely and virtuously. In 1511 he published In Praise of Folly, a biting satire on all forms of human folly. Among his targets were monks who did not live godly lives. In his Handbook of the Christian Knight (Enchiridion Militis Christiani), written in 1501 but not published in England until 1533, he articulated guidelines for Christian life. He advocated an inward and personal faith, centred on prayer and reflection, with focus on the example of Jesus.
Source Evidence: Erasmus on War
From The Adages of Erasmus (1500), Dulce bellum inexpertis (War is sweet to those who have not tried it):
"There is nothing more wicked than war, more disastrous, more widely destructive, more deeply tenacious, more loathsome, in a word, more unworthy of man, not to say of a Christian. Yet strange to say, everywhere at the present time war is being entered upon lightly, for any kind of reason, and waged with cruelty and barbarousness, not only by the heathen but by Christians, not only by lay people but by priests and bishops, not only by the young and inexperienced but by the old who know it well, not so much by the common people and the naturally fickle mob, but rather by princes whose functions should be to restrain with wisdom and reason the rash impulses of the foolish rabble."
This passage demonstrates Erasmus's willingness to criticise not only clergy but also secular rulers, applying humanist principles to contemporary political issues.
Source Evidence: Erasmus's Satire of the Papacy
From In Praise of Folly (1511), a satire by Erasmus (written in 1509):
"As for the Supreme Pontiffs [Popes], if they would recall that they take the place of Christ and would attempt to imitate his poverty, tasks, doctrines, crosses and disregard of safety; if they were even to contemplate the meaning of the name Pope – that is, Father – or of the title of Most Holy, then they would become the most humble and mortified of men. How many men would then be without all their wealth and efforts in order to procure the position [of Pope]?
Under the present system what work that needs to be done is handed over to Peter or Paul to do, while pomp and pleasure are personally taken care of by the Popes... The Popes, neglecting all their other functions, make war their only duty... a thing befitting of beasts, not men."
This satire reveals the boldness of Erasmus's critique, directly challenging papal authority and behaviour at a time when such criticism was dangerous.
Why Erasmus's Ideas Mattered
Erasmus's writings challenged papal authority, criticised clerical behaviour, and advocated personal piety over institutional religion. These ideas were considered important at the time because they:
- Articulated educated dissatisfaction with Church practices
- Called for reform from within the Catholic Church
- Provided intellectual foundations for later religious changes
- Influenced key figures in both Church and state
Putting humanism in perspective
The impact of humanist thought and religion must be understood in context. Only educated individuals were influenced by these ideas. What can be termed 'medieval attitudes' to piety and study remained dominant. Traditional forms of worship continued unquestioned. Pilgrimages, saints, miracles and veneration of images remained central to religious devotion. Writings of mystics such as Julian of Norwich, who lived in the fourteenth century, remained popular two centuries later.
Understanding the Limited Impact
While humanism was intellectually significant, its immediate practical impact was restricted to a small educated elite. The vast majority of the population continued to practice traditional forms of medieval Christianity without being influenced by humanist ideas about reform or personal piety.
The invention of printing
The printing press arrived in England from Germany in 1476. Edward IV (1461–83) encouraged this development, and books in English were printed after translation from French and Latin. Previously, only clergy could read using handwritten manuscripts. Now opportunities existed to read printed material in English. Printing also helped standardise English across the country. At the time there were five main regional dialects with many local variations.
Printing spreads ideas
Printing encouraged dissemination of new ideas including those of humanist writers. People who could read could then study humanist ideas. However, many early books printed in English were mythical tales or popular stories, such as Chaucer's Canterbury Tales or Thomas Malory's King Arthur.
This situation was reflected at court. Henry VII supported printing development. In 1504 he created the post of King's Printer. However, both Henry VII and Henry VIII showed little interest in the new thinking being publicised by humanist writers, preferring stories of chivalry.
Printing transforms literacy and culture
Printing, encouraged by the royal family rather than new ideas, brought about change. Printing led to more gentry and noble classes learning to read and assimilating a wider culture than had been traditional in England. More books were published. The market expanded considerably from the 1520s onwards, partly because of the Reformation.
Print runs were small by modern standards, but books were expensive items and so were shared, and ideas passed on orally. Despite limited print runs, the impact was significant because books circulated among communities and their contents were discussed and debated.
Due to printing, England became a more literate nation, contributing to the cultural Renaissance of Elizabeth's reign.
Widening horizons
Intellectual expansion was not limited to the printed word. From Portugal and Spain, intrepid sailors embarked on dangerous missions to explore the unknown and locate new routes to the lucrative Spice Islands in the Far East. A new, reliable route was required as the Turks, who were Muslim in religion, controlled the overland route from the Mediterranean to the Indian Ocean.
Voyages of exploration
The Portuguese were the first to reach the southern tip of the African continent in 1487, just after Henry VII became King of England. Ten years later Vasco da Gama sailed from Portugal, rounded the southern tip of Africa and reached Calicut in India. In between these two voyages, Columbus sailed west from Spain in 1492 and discovered what was later named America (the continent was named in 1500 on an early exploration map after the explorer Amerigo Vespucci) in a bid to find an alternative route to Asia.
Columbus thought that the world was much smaller than it actually is, and Europeans did not know of the existence of America. His voyage represented both remarkable courage and fundamental geographical misunderstanding, yet it transformed European knowledge of the world.
Impact on European thinking
Tales of non-Christian civilisations beyond Europe, in both America and Asia, later influenced European thinking in a society dominated by the Catholic Church. In the new age of the printing press, accounts of other civilisations could be published, drawings showing the different appearances of humans in other continents could be circulated, and detailed maps could be drawn.
New Resources Transform Daily Life
Explorers also brought back new plants including potatoes, tomatoes, tea and coffee, which affected people's way of life as well as their attitude to the wider world. These discoveries had both practical and intellectual consequences, challenging European assumptions about their place in the world.
Key Points to Remember:
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Humanism emphasised human potential and improvement through education and study of classical texts, spreading from Renaissance Italy to England in the late fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries.
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Humanist scholars like Erasmus, John Colet and William Melton criticised poor standards among the clergy and the Church's exploitation of practices such as selling indulgences, calling for reform and better education.
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The printing press arrived in England in 1476, standardising English, increasing literacy among the gentry and nobility, and enabling wider dissemination of ideas, though early printed works were often traditional tales rather than humanist texts.
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Voyages of exploration by Portuguese and Spanish sailors in the late fifteenth century, including Columbus's discovery of America in 1492 and Vasco da Gama reaching India in 1497, widened European horizons and introduced new knowledge about other civilisations and continents.
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Remember that these changes primarily affected educated elites initially, while traditional medieval attitudes and practices remained dominant among the broader population.