Continuing Factions, 1540–47 (AQA A-Level History): Revision Notes
Continuing factions, 1540–47
Factional competition between conservative and reform groups escalated sharply during Henry VIII's final years. Henry's decision not to appoint a chief minister after Wolsey and Cromwell's falls encouraged this development, as did his deteriorating health.
Historians debate the extent of Henry's control during this period. Some argue his declining health reduced him to a passive observer manipulated by competing factions. Others contend he retained sufficient authority to dismiss advisers and maintain Crown power, evidenced by successful military campaigns in France.
Whatever the balance, political developments were driven by intense factionalism at court.
The nature of factionalism under Henry VIII
Henry actively monitored and at times encouraged factional manoeuvring among his courtiers. This behaviour stemmed partly from egotism – he enjoyed observing noblemen and counsellors compete for royal favour – but it also served a strategic purpose by preventing any single political perspective from monopolising power and ensuring discussion of major issues such as religious reform.
This makes it difficult to dismiss Henry's political importance entirely, even during his final years when his health deteriorated. He deliberately used factional rivalry as a tool to maintain control and prevent any one group from dominating policy.
Conservative successes and setbacks, 1540–42
In 1540, the conservative councillors felt confident. They had recently secured three substantial victories:
- The Six Articles Act enshrined their belief that religious innovation should be restricted
- They had witnessed their principal opponent, Thomas Cromwell, fall from power
- They had enhanced their access to Henry through his new wife, Catherine Howard, who was niece to the Duke of Norfolk
However, their success proved short-lived. The first setback came with the loss of Catherine Howard. Although Henry was infatuated with her (he described her as his 'rose without a thorn'), there was a substantial age difference between them – he was 49, she was 19. By 1541, Henry was presented with extensive evidence of her adultery.
His response was unforgiving: the men implicated in her adultery were executed and Catherine herself was beheaded for treason in February 1542. Although the Duke of Norfolk proclaimed his outrage at what his niece had done to the King, the incident inflicted serious damage on the conservative group.
Catherine Howard's Downfall
The execution of Catherine Howard marked a crucial turning point in factional politics. Her fall not only removed conservative influence within the royal household but also tarnished the reputation of the Duke of Norfolk, the faction's leader. This weakened the conservatives at precisely the moment when reformers were gaining strength at court.
Catherine Parr and the reform faction, 1543
Worse followed when conservatives attempted to undermine the friendship between Henry and Archbishop Cranmer in 1543 by alleging that Cranmer was involved in Protestant heresy. Henry not only dismissed these allegations but placed Cranmer in charge of investigating the claims.
Henry also married Catherine Parr, a recently widowed lady, in July 1543. This proved an important development because Catherine was close to the Seymour family and was a Protestant sympathiser. She gathered scholars around her at court and facilitated their management of the education of Henry's youngest children, Edward and Elizabeth.
Although the conservative faction attacked Catherine Parr in 1546 by accusing members of her household of heresy, Henry supported his wife.
Catherine Parr's Lasting Influence
Catherine Parr's survival and her role in educating Edward and Elizabeth proved crucial for the future of the English Reformation. By ensuring that Edward and Elizabeth remained firmly committed to Protestant reforms, in contrast to the Catholic convictions of their elder sister Mary, she shaped the religious trajectory of England for decades to come.
Succession Act of 1544
Before his death, Henry took measures to ensure his son's safe succession. He had addressed potential rival claimants by executing members of the Pole family and by his violent response to the Earl of Surrey's ill-judged attempts to promote his family's interests. Henry had also ensured that Edward's succession was secure in law.
The Succession Act 1544
The Act, approved by Parliament in 1543 but not given royal assent until February 1544, established a clear legal framework:
- Edward named as heir
- Mary, then Elizabeth, as next in line should he fail to survive or produce children
- After that, succession would pass to the Suffolk family
- This arrangement excluded the infant Mary Queen of Scots
This represented Henry's final attempt to control England's future and ensure Protestant continuity through Edward's expected reign.
Factionalism and the succession, 1546–47
By Henry's final year, the reform faction had become dominant. Catherine Parr had survived and Edward Seymour had strengthened his position at court both as Prince Edward's uncle and as a successful military commander in the war against Scotland. Sir William Paget also enjoyed Henry VIII's trust and served as one of his chief advisers from 1545 onwards.
By contrast, Gardiner's career, a leading bishop who opposed doctrinal reforms, was in decline. He had been accused by reformers of suggesting that the Pope should be reinstated as head of the Church, and only quick thinking enabled him to avoid serious consequences. He had also made a substantial miscalculation by becoming embroiled in a plot against the Queen in 1546. This, together with a fabricated accusation that he was refusing to grant some of his lands to the King, was sufficient to push him out of the inner circle of royal advisers. In the meantime, reformers occupied important positions at court.
Sir Anthony Denny and the Dry Stamp
In October 1546, Sir Anthony Denny, a committed supporter of religious reforms, was made Chief Gentleman of the King's Privy Chamber. As Henry's illnesses during his last months kept him largely confined to his private apartments, Denny's role became essential. He attended to Henry's needs and spent considerable time with the King. He also controlled who was permitted to visit Henry and who should be admitted.
The Political Power of the Dry Stamp
Sir Anthony Denny's position granted him access to a crucial political instrument – the Dry Stamp. Instead of troubling the King with every minor document requiring signing, the holder of the stamp could make an impression of the royal signature onto paper, then ink in the outline to produce an almost perfect replica of the King's handwriting.
Using the stamp, the reform faction, led by Seymour and Denny, could authorise any document they selected – including an altered version of Henry VIII's will which reformers believed Henry was too ill to approve. The revised will maintained the succession as Henry had agreed in the 1544 Succession Act, but added provisions that strengthened the power of the Regency Council established to rule during Edward VI's minority.
The arrests of Norfolk and Surrey, December 1546
The conservative group finally disintegrated in December 1546 through the arrests on treason charges of the Duke of Norfolk and his son, the Earl of Surrey. Rumours had been circulating for some time that Surrey had spoken openly about his family's claim to the throne (a highly sensitive issue given Henry's illness and the age of his only surviving son).
To worsen matters, Surrey foolishly incorporated part of the royal coat of arms of his ancestor King Edward I onto his own family emblem, despite having no official authority to do so. This appeared to suggest that his designs on the Crown were serious.
The Final Blow to Conservative Power
Parliament passed Acts of Attainder against both Norfolk and Surrey. Surrey was executed a week before Henry's death. Norfolk escaped execution because Henry died on 28 January 1547 before signing the order. With the influence of both men terminated, Bishop Gardiner removed from the Regency Council, and Henry's will in their hands, the reform faction had triumphed.
The regency and Henry's death
According to the will, the regency was to be managed by a council of sixteen men, nominated by Henry. The reform faction dominated the membership of this council. Henry's death was kept secret while the leading politicians began to discuss how best to implement the regency.
Henry's plan of government by committee was a clever way of prioritising his son's interests, but it proved too ambitious and unusual to function effectively. The Earl of Hertford seemed the best positioned for leadership. He was Edward's uncle, an important figure within the reform faction with a successful military career to recommend him.
Three days after Henry's death, the council appointed Hertford as Lord Protector, reviving the traditional concept of a regency led by someone close to the king-in-waiting.
Following this, Hertford took the title of the Duke of Somerset and used the power granted to the council in Henry's will to promote supporters with new titles and positions in government. Finally, Somerset began to appoint his own Privy Council, drawing on a wider circle of men than the will had envisaged. The transition from Henry's death to a regency had been accomplished peacefully with reformers in charge.
Factions at court during the 1540s
| Conservative faction | Reform faction |
|---|---|
| Accepted the break with Rome but opposed doctrinal changes | Accepted the break with Rome, seeing it as an opportunity to introduce Protestant doctrines into the Church |
| Led by the Duke of Norfolk (Thomas Howard) and Stephen Gardiner (Bishop of Winchester) | Led by Edward Seymour (Earl of Hertford and later Duke of Somerset) and Archbishop Cranmer |
| Associated with: passing of the Six Articles Act (1539); fall of Thomas Cromwell; Catherine Howard, Henry's fifth wife; plot against Cranmer (1543); plot against Catherine Parr (1546) | Associated with: foreign policy success in Scotland; fall of Catherine Howard; Catherine Parr, Henry's sixth wife; plot against Gardiner (1544); arrest of Norfolk (1546) |
Key dates: factions at court and the succession
- 1540: Execution of Thomas Cromwell; Henry's marriage to Catherine Howard
- 1542: Execution of Catherine Howard
- 1543: Marriage to Catherine Parr; plot by conservative faction to arrest Cranmer
- 1544: Succession Act
- 1545: Sir William Paget became important member of Privy Council
- 1546: Sir Anthony Denny became Chief Gentleman of King's Privy Chamber; arrest of Norfolk and Surrey
- 1547: Execution of Surrey; death of Henry VIII; regency for Edward VI dominated by reformers under Hertford (Duke of Somerset)
Key Points to Remember:
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Factional rivalry between conservative and reform groups intensified markedly during 1540-47, with Henry monitoring and at times encouraging this competition
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Conservative successes in 1540 (Six Articles Act, Cromwell's fall, Catherine Howard marriage) were reversed by Catherine Howard's execution in 1542 and Henry's marriage to the Protestant-sympathising Catherine Parr in 1543
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The Succession Act of 1544 legally secured Edward's succession, with Mary then Elizabeth next in line, excluding Mary Queen of Scots
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Sir Anthony Denny's appointment as Chief Gentleman of the Privy Chamber in October 1546 and his control of the Dry Stamp gave reformers the ability to authorise documents, including an altered version of Henry's will
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The arrests of Norfolk and Surrey in December 1546, Surrey's execution before Henry's death on 28 January 1547, and the establishment of a reform-dominated regency under the Earl of Hertford (Duke of Somerset) marked the complete triumph of the reform faction