The ‘Mid-Tudor Crisis’: The Beginning of Elizabeth’s Reign, 1558–63 (AQA A-Level History): Revision Notes
Religious Settlement of 1559
The Religious Settlement of 1559 represents Elizabeth I's attempt to resolve religious divisions in England by creating a moderate Church that could accommodate both Catholic and Protestant viewpoints. This settlement established the framework of the Church of England for centuries to come and shaped English religious identity throughout Elizabeth's reign.
Context and aims of the settlement
Upon her accession in November 1558, Elizabeth inherited a nation divided by religious conflict. Henry VIII's break with Rome, Edward VI's Protestant reforms, and Mary I's Catholic restoration had created instability and uncertainty. Elizabeth sought to end these oscillations by establishing a Church settlement that would:
- Avoid the religious warfare then tearing apart the German states and threatening France
- Satisfy the majority of the population who were less concerned with theological precision than with stability
- Establish royal control over the Church
- Create a Church that blended elements from both Catholic and Protestant traditions
The rapid religious changes under successive Tudor monarchs—from Catholic under Henry VIII and Mary I, to Protestant under Edward VI, and back to Catholic under Mary I—had created widespread confusion and instability. Elizabeth's settlement aimed to end this cycle by creating a lasting compromise that could accommodate diverse religious views.
The settlement achieved its compromise through careful wording and deliberate ambiguity on contentious theological points.
Act of Supremacy, 1559
Passed in May 1559, the Act of Supremacy re-established the English monarch as supreme authority over the Church, reversing Mary I's return to papal jurisdiction.
Supreme Governor was the title Elizabeth chose for herself, rather than "Supreme Head" used by Henry VIII and Edward VI. This represented a calculated compromise. The title had the same practical effect—Elizabeth controlled the Church—but the less assertive wording allowed those who still regarded the Pope as the rightful head of the universal Church, or those who believed no woman should hold the highest Church position, to accept Elizabeth's authority more easily.
The Significance of "Supreme Governor" vs "Supreme Head"
Elizabeth's choice of title was politically astute. While both titles gave the monarch control over the Church, "Supreme Governor" was deliberately less assertive. This subtle change:
- Made the settlement more acceptable to Catholics who still regarded the Pope as the spiritual head of the universal Church
- Addressed concerns that a woman should not hold the highest Church position
- Achieved the same practical control without appearing too radical
The Act required all clergy to swear an oath of loyalty to Elizabeth as Supreme Governor. To enforce this requirement, commissioners were dispatched throughout England to investigate compliance. A new Court of High Commission was established to prosecute clergy whose loyalty remained suspect.
Organisation of the Church of England
The structural organisation of the Church changed little from the Catholic period. England retained its two archbishops—Canterbury and York—and bishops continued to oversee regional dioceses. This hierarchical structure differed markedly from Protestant churches in continental Europe, where congregations typically organised themselves with much greater independence.
This decision to maintain the traditional episcopal structure served several purposes. It provided continuity, reassured those with Catholic sympathies, and ensured the crown maintained tight control over the Church through the appointment of bishops. By keeping bishops as royal appointees, Elizabeth could ensure Church leadership remained loyal to the crown.
Act of Uniformity, 1559
The Act of Uniformity (May 1559) established rules governing church worship and appearance. The Act mandated that practices established in 1549, during the first year of the Edwardian Prayer Book, should continue. This meant:
- The communion table (a more Protestant term) replaced the Catholic altar, though crosses and candles could still be placed upon it
- Priests wore specific vestments to conduct services, though these were not oriented towards Catholic practices
- The emphasis fell on the words spoken during services rather than the priest's appearance, reflecting the Protestant belief that true worship occurred through hearing God's word
The Act's framers demonstrated political acumen. They recognised that most English people cared less about theological disputes than about the familiarity of their worship services. Dramatic changes to church appearance would prove jarring, so the settlement introduced Protestant theology through moderate language rather than dramatic visual transformation.
Church attendance became compulsory under the Act. Those who failed to attend could be fined, though the fines remained small and were not usually enforced rigorously. Money collected was distributed to the poor. Attending Catholic Mass, rather than the Church of England's communion service, constituted a serious offence. Anyone caught saying Mass faced the death penalty.
Penalties for Religious Non-Conformity
The Act of Uniformity established a two-tier system of enforcement:
- Missing Church of England services: Small fines that were rarely enforced rigorously, showing a lenient approach to encourage compliance
- Saying or attending Catholic Mass: Death penalty, demonstrating the settlement's ultimately Protestant character despite its moderate appearance
This contrast reveals Elizabeth's priorities: she wanted conformity to the new Church but reserved harsh penalties only for those actively maintaining Catholic worship.
Royal Injunctions of 1559
A single Act of Parliament could not address every detail of reformed worship. In July 1559, Elizabeth issued 57 Royal Injunctions—detailed instructions that supplemented the Acts of Supremacy and Uniformity. These injunctions required:
- Preachers to obtain a bishop's licence before they could preach
- Preachers to deliver at least one service monthly or lose their licence
- Every church to display a Bible written in English
- The outlawing of pilgrimages
- The destruction of remaining altars
These measures demonstrated the settlement's Protestant character while avoiding the most extreme reforms.
1559 Prayer Book
The Book of Common Prayer issued in 1559 established a single, uniform set of doctrines and liturgy for the entire country, ending the quarrels between Protestants and Catholics over correct worship practices.
The 1559 Prayer Book ingeniously fused the two previous Protestant Prayer Books from Edward VI's reign:
- The 1549 book used moderate language closer to Catholic tradition
- The 1552 book employed more openly Protestant wording
By amalgamating these two texts, the Elizabethan Prayer Book struck a compromise that both Protestants and Catholics could hear elements they wanted when attending services.
The bread and wine controversy
A central theological dispute between Catholics and Protestants concerned what happened to the bread and wine during Mass or communion.
Catholics believed in transubstantiation—the doctrine that the priest literally transformed the bread into Christ's body and the wine into Christ's blood. Anyone consuming these elements took God's presence directly into themselves, achieving spiritual cleansing from sin and renewal.
Protestants rejected this interpretation. They believed the bread and wine functioned as important symbols of Christ's presence, creating a moment of spiritual intensity for the celebrant, but not that any physical transformation occurred.
Worked Example: How the 1559 Prayer Book Achieved Compromise
The three Prayer Books handled this contentious issue differently, showing how Elizabeth's settlement achieved theological ambiguity:
The 1549 Book of Common Prayer (more Catholic) instructed priests to say:
"The body of our Lord Jesus Christ which was given for thee, preserve thy body and soul unto everlasting life."
The 1552 Book of Common Prayer (more Protestant) changed the phrasing to:
"Take and eat this in remembrance that Christ died for thee, and feed on him in thy heart by faith, with thanksgiving."
The 1559 Elizabethan Prayer Book balanced these positions by requiring priests to say:
"The body of our Lord Jesus Christ which was given for thee, preserve thy body and soul unto everlasting life, and take, and eat this, in remembrance that Christ died for thee, feed on him in thine heart by faith, with thanksgiving."
The Compromise: This carefully constructed formula allowed both interpretations to coexist. Those favouring the Catholic view could focus on the first part (suggesting real presence), while those with Protestant convictions could emphasise the latter portion (emphasising symbolic remembrance).
Thirty Nine Articles of 1563
Parliament could not produce a comprehensive statement of Anglican faith in a single act. Following the initial settlement, the Convocation of the Church (an assembly of senior clergy) worked to produce a definitive statement of what "Anglicanism" meant.
The result, published in 1563 and made law in 1571, was the Thirty Nine Articles. These Articles remain the essential statement of belief in the Church of England. Like the rest of the settlement, the Thirty Nine Articles welded together elements from both Protestant and Catholic traditions, creating a doctrinal position acceptable to the widest possible range of believers.
Reactions to the settlement at home
Elizabeth hoped the settlement would calm religious tensions that had intensified since Henry VIII's reign. She had reason for optimism—reaction among most Catholics and Protestants to the changes remained muted.
Estimates suggest around 400 clergy lost or resigned their positions because they would not accept the settlement. All Catholic bishops appointed by Mary refused to swear the oath and were dismissed. This provided Elizabeth the opportunity to make fresh appointments, creating a Church leadership enthusiastic about her reforms.
By contrast, approximately 800 Protestants had fled abroad during Mary's reign. The minimal scale of refusal between 1559 and 1563 demonstrated that the settlement achieved considerable success in creating a broadly acceptable Church.
Evidence of Success
The statistics reveal the settlement's effectiveness:
- Only 400 clergy refused out of thousands of English clergy
- All Marian bishops refused, allowing Elizabeth to appoint her own supporters
- Minimal opposition compared to the 800 Protestants who had fled during Mary's reign
This suggests the majority of the population accepted the compromise, whether out of genuine approval or pragmatic acceptance.
However, localised opposition appeared from the beginning. Some ministers simply ignored the new Book of Common Prayer, maintaining traditional Catholic worship practices. A 1564 survey of Justices of the Peace found only half could be relied upon to actively support the settlement. The strongest English reaction centred on financial aspects of the settlement and the seemingly minor issue of priestly vestments, rather than fundamental theological disputes.
Act of Exchange, 1559
The Act of Exchange (1559) allowed Elizabeth to treat the Church as a financial resource for the crown. The disastrous war against France under Mary, and problems with Scotland at Elizabeth's accession, had created a dangerous shortage of royal funds.
Elizabeth followed Henry VIII's precedent by diverting taxes traditionally paid to Rome into her own coffers. She also reinstated Mary's controversial policy of such taxation. Additionally, the Act of Exchange permitted Elizabeth to take over property belonging to bishops and force them to rent land from her.
In practice, the Act functioned more as a threat to keep critical bishops in line than as a method of acquiring additional land and property. This may explain its unpopularity—it represented royal interference in Church finances without even producing substantial revenue. The threat of financial penalties helped ensure bishop loyalty to the crown's religious policies.
Foreign reactions to the Church settlement
Elizabeth remained acutely aware that international responses to her religious settlement could prove dangerous. Both France and Spain were Catholic powers capable of threatening England.
In practice, neither France nor Spain showed much inclination to criticise the settlement. France became increasingly absorbed in civil war between Catholic and Protestant (Huguenot) factions. Philip II of Spain hoped Elizabeth might be persuaded to return the Church to Rome.
In 1559, Philip offered to marry Elizabeth. This represented more gesture than genuine proposal, designed to maintain hopes that Catholicism might be preserved in England. As the 1560s progressed, Elizabeth began to regard Spain as more threatening. During this decade, the international balance of power was destabilised by events that left English foreign policy uncertain.
The French-Scottish dimension
Events in 1559 complicated the international situation. Mary, Queen of Scots had married Francis, heir to the French throne. When Henry II of France died in a tournament celebrating the Peace of Câteau-Cambrésis, Francis and Mary became king and queen of France. This solidified the alliance between France and Scotland, creating a direct threat to Elizabeth.
Mary also claimed the English throne as Henry VII's granddaughter. If Elizabeth died without producing an heir, Mary stood as the rightful successor, assuming Henry VIII's last will was disregarded.
Meanwhile, in Scotland, Protestant nobles led a rebellion against the French Catholic regent, Mary of Guise, who had ruled Scotland on behalf of her daughter, Mary, Queen of Scots, since the death of her husband, James V, in 1542. She had ruled on behalf of Mary since Mary inherited the throne aged six.
William Cecil persuaded Elizabeth to send limited arms and money secretly to the Scottish rebels. In 1560, a peace settlement—the Treaty of Edinburgh—was reached and French troops stationed in Scotland withdrew. After this treaty was signed, another complication arose when Francis II died suddenly.
Mary returned to Scotland as Queen but now as a widow. Her next marriage became a matter of intense English interest. She chose Lord Darnley, who had a distant claim to the English throne through his mother.
While Elizabeth's councillors worried about Scotland, in 1562 the French state collapsed into civil war between rival groups of nobles and their clients for control of the crown. Ten-year-old Charles IX had ascended the throne with his mother, Catherine de Medici, as regent. Catholic families, including the Guises, competed against Protestant Huguenot families, led by the Prince of Condé. Although a weakened France removed the immediate threat to England, it also decisively tipped the power balance towards Catholic Spain.
Huguenot refers to Protestants in France who were followers of John Calvin. Their struggle against Catholic forces in France created opportunities for Elizabeth to intervene in continental affairs, though such interventions carried significant risks.
Elizabeth proved cautious in making decisions, but embraced the idea of intervening to support the Huguenots. Her favourite, Robert Dudley, enthusiastically backed the project, eager to present himself as a statesman. Elizabeth, Dudley, and other ministers hoped that in return for support, the Huguenot rebels might enable England to recover Calais as an English possession.
The Treaty of Hampton Court (September 1562) committed England to providing loans and military aid to the Huguenots. English troops, led by Dudley's brother, the Earl of Warwick, captured Le Havre. However, the focus then shifted from helping the Huguenots towards attempting to exchange Le Havre for Calais. The Huguenots became disillusioned, reached a temporary truce with the Catholics, and planned to expel the English from Le Havre. An outbreak of plague in Le Havre helped their cause, and the town surrendered in June 1563. The Peace of Troyes was signed in 1564 between the English and French governments.
Lessons from the French Intervention (1562-1564)
The episode revealed the absence of clear strategic thinking in English foreign policy at this time. Elizabeth eventually recognised that ill-defined campaigns were unlikely to succeed, even when fought ostensibly for religion. She became acutely aware of the potential problems in assisting rebels against a legitimate monarch.
Key lesson: The results of this episode made Elizabeth more cautious in foreign policy later in her reign, shaping her approach to international relations for decades to come.
Influence of the Council of Trent
The Council of Trent finally concluded in 1563, having begun nearly twenty years earlier in 1545. The council assembled Europe's leading Catholic clergy to discuss the Church's future. The council produced a series of hardline decrees ending any possibility of peaceful compromise with Protestants. It also reflected a broader reinvigoration of Catholicism within Europe—directed against both Protestants and Muslim Ottoman Turks threatening the western Mediterranean.
Some observers wanted Elizabeth excommunicated, but others, including Philip II, hoped to persuade Elizabeth to change the religious settlement. The Council of Trent's hardline stance against Protestantism signalled the end of any hope for reconciliation between Catholic and Protestant Europe, making Elizabeth's position increasingly precarious. Elizabeth became concerned at the threat of France, Spain, or both attacking England.
Philip II and the Netherlands
Philip II also ruled the Netherlands, which held immense importance for English trade. In 1563, Philip banned the import of English cloth to the Netherlands. Officially, this aimed to protect the Netherlands against plague infection from England, but the ban reflected annoyance that the balance of trade had shifted in England's favour. Elizabeth had turned a blind eye to piracy in the Channel and to English merchants spreading Protestant ideas in the Netherlands. Elizabeth responded by banning all imports from the Netherlands, but both sides eventually backed down and normalised trade relations in 1564.
During the first years of her reign, Elizabeth observed signs of a dangerously powerful Catholic Spanish monarchy behind these events. Her response involved searching for methods of containing Spanish might without overextending her limited resources. In the 1560s, Elizabeth was forced by circumstances to make war against Spain, but by that time she faced a country with the appearance but not the substance of a superpower.
Key Points to Remember:
- The Religious Settlement of 1559 created a compromise Church blending Catholic and Protestant elements to achieve stability
- The Act of Supremacy made Elizabeth "Supreme Governor" (not "Supreme Head") of the Church of England—a calculated compromise to make the settlement more acceptable
- The Act of Uniformity and 1559 Prayer Book established uniform worship practices with deliberately ambiguous wording on contentious theological issues, particularly regarding the bread and wine
- The settlement provoked minimal domestic opposition, with only around 400 clergy refusing to accept it out of thousands
- Foreign Catholic powers (France and Spain) did not immediately challenge the settlement due to their own internal problems—France's civil wars and Philip II's hopes of converting Elizabeth
- The intervention in France to support the Huguenots (1562-64) ended in failure and made Elizabeth more cautious in foreign policy, teaching her valuable lessons about the risks of military intervention
- The Council of Trent (concluded 1563) ended any possibility of compromise between Catholics and Protestants, increasing pressure on Elizabeth's moderate settlement