Rule of Northumberland, 1549–53 (AQA A-Level History): Revision Notes

Rule of Northumberland, 1549–53

Northumberland's rise to power

The Earl of Warwick emerged as the main beneficiary of Somerset's political downfall. Warwick had commanded the forces that suppressed Kett's rebellion and enjoyed backing within the government. However, his path to power was not straightforward. He had no direct family connection to Edward VI (Somerset had been the young king's uncle), which meant he needed to build support carefully within the Privy Council.

Warwick secured the title of Duke of Northumberland, though full control took time. It was not until February 1550 that he gained the title of Lord President of the Council, a position that gave him formal authority to govern through the Privy Council rather than wielding personal power as Somerset had attempted. This arrangement proved more stable because it distributed responsibility across the council and avoided the problems of Somerset's autocratic style.

Northumberland's early reputation portrayed him as an unprincipled opportunist willing to adopt any policy to secure his position. Recent historical assessment has become more nuanced, recognising that he governed in exceptionally difficult circumstances. The most serious public disturbances of the sixteenth century had just occurred, and England faced continued unrest following poor harvests and a collapse in the cloth trade during the early 1550s. His policies therefore represented both a response to crisis and a departure from Somerset's approach.

Religious changes under Northumberland, 1550–53

Protestant reform accelerates

During Northumberland's rule, Protestant reformers gained unprecedented influence in government and transformed the Church of England into an unmistakably Protestant institution. Reformers continued arriving from continental Europe, many bringing radical views. Some were Calvinists, adherents of the theological system developed in Geneva that emphasised predestination, Biblical authority in government, strict moral living, and social reform including wealth redistribution.

The extent to which Northumberland personally embraced these radical ideas remains contested. Some historians argue he cynically supported reformers merely to consolidate his power following Somerset's removal. Others suggest genuine conviction, though the truth likely lies between these extremes. What is certain is that Northumberland recognised the political necessity of aligning with the Protestant faction to secure his dominant position in the Privy Council.

The religious settlement of 1552

Parliament assembled in January 1552 to enact a comprehensive programme of religious reform. The legislation passed fundamentally altered English religious practice:

The Treason Act made questioning the Royal Supremacy or any belief of the English Church a criminal offence. This represented a hardening of religious enforcement, making it dangerous to voice opposition to the new Protestant settlement.

The Second Act of Uniformity required both clergy and laity to attend Church of England services. Those who failed to comply faced fines or imprisonment. This compulsory attendance aimed to prevent Catholics from maintaining their own worship practices.

The 1552 Prayer Book removed all remaining traces of Catholicism and the mass. The significance of the Eucharist, now called the Last Supper, was diminished, with greater emphasis placed on it as a commemorative ceremony rather than a sacrament involving transubstantiation.

An attack on Church wealth, partly driven by government financial needs, resulted in commissioners removing all gold and silver plate still held in parish churches. This process had only just begun when Edward VI died, suggesting that had he lived longer, the spoliation would have been more extensive.

By summer 1553, the Church of England had become definitively Protestant. The 42 Articles drawn up that year outlined its doctrines, showing clear influence from Calvin as well as Luther. However, the Church's hierarchical structure remained unchanged, with its archbishops, bishops and dioceses continuing as before.

Public religious opinion and the influence of humanism

English public opinion on these changes was far from uniform. When Mary became Queen and restored Catholicism, many people readily acquiesced. Numerous landowners appeared to favour Protestantism, perhaps influenced by their acquisition of monastic land. Enthusiasm for Protestant reforms existed in London and some other areas, partly due to direct contact with Protestant regions of northern Europe through trade and travel. However, for many others, particularly the uneducated, there was acceptance rather than enthusiasm for Protestantism. The disappearance of familiar ceremonies and the reduction of Holy Days from their traditional number to twenty-five caused discontent.

Alongside religious reform, another intellectual movement gained strength among the educated elite: humanism. This educational and philosophical approach emphasised classical learning, critical thinking, and the study of ancient texts in their original languages. Humanism had been developing at Cambridge and other universities since the early sixteenth century, and it received fresh impetus during Edward VI's reign.

This intellectual shift influenced education significantly. Richard Cox, a Protestant humanist, served as one of Edward VI's tutors. Roger Ascham and William Grindal, who would later become Archbishop of Canterbury, tutored the future Elizabeth I. Humanism became central to developing religious thought, and its followers in Edward VI's reign formed the core of the ruling group at the beginning of Elizabeth's reign.

Educated people were eager to disseminate their knowledge, leading to an explosion of publishing in the mid-sixteenth century. Several volumes of metrical psalms appeared, adapting psalms into English poetry set to hymn tunes, reflecting Calvinist expectations of music in church services. Clergy published theological books in elegant Tudor prose. Hugh Latimer's 'Sermon of the Plough', preached at St Paul's in 1548, exemplifies this literature. His writing promoted Protestant ideas whilst emphasising social morality, presenting England as a commonwealth where all must work together for the common good. Latimer became a leading voice among the 'Commonwealth Men', who denounced greedy landlords and advocated fairer treatment of the poor in society.

Foreign policy under Northumberland, 1549–53

Northumberland fundamentally changed England's foreign policy direction. He was prepared to sacrifice English influence in Scotland to concentrate on pressing internal problems. He also recognised that future friendship with France might prove valuable given that England's main enemy was likely to be Spain and the Holy Roman Empire, both ruled by Emperor Charles V, an uncompromising Catholic.

This shift occurred whilst the Counter-Reformation was gathering momentum in Europe. This Catholic offensive against Protestantism, centred at Rome and coordinated through the Council of Trent, aimed to reassert Catholic doctrine and convert populations back to Catholicism. Jesuits and the Inquisition spearheaded this movement, creating a hostile international environment for Protestant England.

Relations with Charles V deteriorated markedly. He was angered by the shift towards more extreme Protestantism being implemented in England, viewing it as a threat to Catholic unity in Europe.

Economy, trade and exploration

Financial crisis and government response

Following the expense of Somerset's war, the government faced severe financial difficulties and had borrowed heavily from European bankers. William Cecil, Secretary of State, and Thomas Gresham from the Treasury received responsibility for financial planning. Their measures included selling Crown lands to begin repaying loans. Successive debasements of the coinage under Henry VIII had fuelled inflation, so the coinage was recalled and re-issued with the silver content matching what it had been in 1527. To increase revenue, the government raised Customs and Excise rates. Even more Crown lands had to be sold, and the removal of gold and silver plate from churches formed part of this revenue-raising strategy.

Social and economic problems

Several pressing social and economic problems demanded attention beyond the financial crisis:

Northumberland's policies addressed these problems systematically. The unpopular sheep tax of 1548 was repealed in 1550, removing a burden on farmers. A new Treason Act of 1550 re-imposed censorship, which helped restore law and order by controlling dissent. Though little pressure existed to enclose more land, anti-enclosure legislation was enforced and the unpopular enclosure commissions ended. Acts were passed to protect arable farming, preventing excessive conversion to pasture. A new poor law passed in 1552 made parishes responsible for raising money to support the deserving poor, creating a more systematic approach to poverty relief.

Trade expansion and exploration

Given the uncertainties of European trade, Northumberland encouraged the expansion of trade routes beyond Europe. By 1553, English ships were trading as far as the Gold Coast in West Africa. English ships lacked the advancement and strength to sail round the Cape of Good Hope to reach India or China, but interest developed in discovering a north-east passage round the north of the American continent.

How well-governed was England in the reign of Edward VI?

Many problems that led to Somerset's disgrace and execution were not actually his responsibility; rather, they were inherited from Henry VIII's reign. Somerset had the disadvantage of being Edward's uncle but failed to act decisively on various issues, allowing discontent to simmer and grow until it erupted into rebellions. Northumberland, in contrast, had no close link with the young monarch, but he appeared to be firmly in control with support from the Privy Council, and stability was being restored.

However, the international situation remained highly threatening. At home, Northumberland's position became weak with the deterioration of Edward's health in the spring of 1553, creating a looming crisis over the succession.

Succession crisis of 1553

In spring 1552, Edward VI contracted and survived both measles and smallpox. However, in January 1553, the first signs of a more serious illness affecting his chest appeared. It became clear that, short of a miracle, the fifteen-year-old king would not live to be crowned. Under the terms of the 1544 Succession Act, Edward's heir was Princess Mary.

To protect both himself and the Protestant faith, Northumberland attempted to alter the succession before Edward died. He based his plans on two considerations:

Firstly, he needed to prevent Mary from becoming queen, which meant setting aside the 1544 Succession Act.

Secondly, he needed to ensure a Protestant succession that would continue the religious reforms initiated since 1547.

His solution was to promote Lady Jane Grey, a Protestant and great-granddaughter of Henry VII, as Edward's heir, and he arranged for his son to marry her. This attempt to manipulate the succession would ultimately lead to Northumberland's downfall and Mary's accession.