Government Under Wolsey (AQA A-Level History): Revision Notes
Government Under Wolsey
Wolsey's effectiveness as Chancellor
Henry VIII appointed Thomas Wolsey as Lord Chancellor in 1515, granting him extensive authority over day-to-day governance. However, assessments of Wolsey's effectiveness reveal a mixed record. Rather than implementing comprehensive structural reforms, Wolsey focused his energy on specific changes to royal policy that either served his personal interests or addressed issues that dissatisfied Henry.
Many of Wolsey's reforms appeared designed to weaken potential rivals rather than improve governmental efficiency. This pattern of personal consolidation of power over genuine administrative reform would characterise much of his time in office.
The 1526 Eltham Ordinances, which reorganised the chaotic finances of the Privy Chamber and supposedly made the King's household more efficient, primarily served to reduce the influence of others at court and increase Wolsey's personal control over government operations. Once he achieved greater authority, these reforms were permitted to lapse. In practice, Wolsey made few lasting changes to governmental structure.
Historians' assessments of Wolsey's reforms:
Historian Richard Rex argued in 1992 that Wolsey's administration contained "nothing in terms of reform" and that he possessed "enormous legislative powers" from the papacy but failed to use them to address doctrinal rebellion or Church-State conflicts.
Peter Marshall, writing in 2008, similarly suggested that Wolsey was neither deeply corrupt nor an inspirational reforming leader. Instead, he operated as a power-focused prelate rather than the transformative figure English Catholicism required.
Wolsey's working relationship with Henry VIII
Although Henry delegated routine governance to Wolsey, the Lord Chancellor remained careful never to assume this meant he could bypass the King. Wolsey devoted considerable effort to keeping Henry informed about government affairs whilst simultaneously ensuring that rival courtiers could not supplant him in royal favour.
Minions — the term used for Henry's favourite nobles of his own age — presented a particular challenge. These men enjoyed access to the King's private chambers in the palace, allowing them to influence Henry away from public view and potentially block others from reaching him. Wolsey needed to manage this problem carefully to maintain his position.
The 1526 Eltham Ordinances provided Wolsey with a mechanism to address this issue. Ostensibly aimed at improving household efficiency and reorganising Privy Chamber finances, these measures actually served to diminish the influence of potential rivals and strengthen Wolsey's control over various aspects of government. Once this objective was accomplished, the reforms were not vigorously maintained.
Legal reforms
As Lord Chancellor, Wolsey held responsibility for overseeing England's legal system. By 1516 he was already planning reforms to address slow and frequently unfair justice delivery. His particular interest lay in promoting civil law — a system based on natural justice and evidence — rather than common law which relied on precedent from similar past cases.
Strengthening Star Chamber
The centrepiece of Wolsey's legal reforms was the strengthened Star Chamber. Henry VII had established this court, staffed by Privy Council members, to handle justice on the King's behalf, particularly in cases involving the nobility. However, it had remained relatively inactive, probably hearing only around twelve cases annually.
Transformation of Star Chamber
Wolsey transformed Star Chamber into a much more active institution, increasing the number of cases heard each year from approximately 12 to approximately 120. This tenfold increase represented one of his most significant and lasting reforms. He used this court more frequently to prosecute nobles and local officials who abused their power.
Wolsey encouraged commoners to bring complaints before the court, giving him a reputation as a friend to the poor. Specifically, he championed laws against enclosure of land for sheep farming.
Contemporary praise for Wolsey's justice
The Venetian ambassador Guistiniani reported in 1519 that Wolsey was "thoughtful and has the reputation of being extremely just" and "favours the people exceedingly, and especially the poor, hearing their cases and seeking to dispatch them instantly."
Court of Requests
Wolsey also utilised the Court of Requests to hear cases brought by poor people. This court met in Whitehall in the Palace of Westminster, whereas under Henry VII it had been more closely tied to wherever the King was residing. It became popular due to the low cost of bringing a case and because decisions were reached quickly. Wolsey even arranged for lawyers to represent all paupers without charge.
Assessment of legal reforms
Despite these initiatives, Wolsey's legal interventions had limitations. When the pursuit of justice for all clashed with his own interests, the latter gained priority. He lacked formal legal training, and his interventions were resented by those who were properly qualified. Rather than establishing new systematic procedures, his approach remained piecemeal and personal, failing to continue when he was not present. Peter Gwyn, his modern biographer, suggests these interventions were neither systematic nor designed to tackle underlying issues comprehensively.
Financial reforms
Money shortage presented a serious problem for Henry VIII. His father had avoided expensive foreign policy, but the new King desired recognition and respect from other European rulers. Wolsey recognised that existing forms of royal finance could be exploited further.
Parliamentary taxation
Parliamentary grants, based on property taxes called fifteenths and tenths, had become fixed to a settled sum, making them unlikely to increase even with growing inflation. With prices rising, the actual value of revenue collected declined in real terms.
The 1522 national survey
In 1522, Wolsey organised a national survey to assess who could pay tax and how much. This was the first systematic investigation into national finances since the Domesday Survey of 1086. He used this information to raise approximately £200,000 in forced loans between 1522 and 1523. However, this proved insufficient during a period of inflation and expensive foreign policy commitments.
Subsidy system
To overcome revenue limitations, Wolsey proposed a more flexible tax system: a subsidy. This required approval by the House of Commons, which met in 1523. The subsidy was based on earned income rather than property value, resembling modern income tax. Whilst approved, the subsidy did not generate as much revenue as Wolsey hoped, and he also imposed a tax on the Church.
The Amicable Grant (1525)
In 1525, Wolsey proposed an 'Amicable Grant' from both the Church and ordinary taxpayers, calculated according to valuations of their property. The response provoked the only major rebellion during the first half of Henry VIII's reign.
The Amicable Grant Crisis: March-April 1525
In March and April 1525, the government sent out commissioners to order collection of the Amicable Grant. The terms were harsh:
- The laity were ordered to pay between one-sixth and one-tenth of the value of goods they owned
- The clergy were to pay one-third of the value of their goods
- Officials gave people just ten weeks to find the necessary money
The Response: Resistance proved immediate and widespread, forcing Wolsey to begin granting exceptions to the tax. As news of these exemptions spread, more regions demanded they too should be exempted. Henry responded to the unrest caused by the tax by stepping in to suspend it.
The Outcome: This created an embarrassing climb-down for both the King, who had hoped to use the money for renewed warfare in France, and Wolsey. It demonstrated the limits of royal financial power without parliamentary consent.
Economic policies
Tudor governments rarely developed coherent economic policies, partly because little existed that could be considered a national economy beyond shipbuilding and woollen production. However, Wolsey involved himself in the growing problem of enclosures.
Enclosure referred to the conversion of arable land to sheep pasture by enclosing fields. This destroyed village life and employment. Tentative attempts to address this issue had occurred under Henry VII, but Henry VIII had been too concerned about annoying landowners unnecessarily whilst he remained vulnerable to opposition.
Enclosure enquiries
In 1517, Wolsey initiated a national enquiry to determine how much land was enclosed and what effects this was having. From this investigation, legal cases were brought against landlords judged to have enclosed land without proper permission. Further investigations were conducted in 1518, although opposition from landowners in Parliament forced him to suspend these enquiries temporarily in 1523. They were not resumed until 1526.
Trade and foreign policy
Foreign policy could easily disrupt trade. Wolsey's alliance with France against Spain caused problems during the late 1520s. England possessed little money with which to fight, and the main weapon became a trade embargo against Spain, which controlled the Netherlands as part of Burgundy. This affected English cloth trade very badly and coincided with one of the worst harvests (1527) of the period.
Widespread unemployment resulted, with effects worsened by price rises that had developed during this decade. In 1526, Wolsey undertook a recoinage which increased the number of coins in circulation but reduced the weight of silver coins. This debasement of the coinage stimulated exports but contributed to rising prices as coins became worth less.
Economic crisis and unrest
The later 1520s marked the first occasion in Tudor England where economic depression and price rises caused substantial suffering among the poor. Numerous riots had to be suppressed in the spring of 1528, occurring in the south east, East Anglia and the south west.
The Perfect Storm of 1527-1528:
- Trade embargo disrupting cloth exports
- Harvest failure in 1527
- Debasement of coinage causing inflation
- Rising unemployment
- Widespread riots requiring suppression
This economic crisis revealed the interconnected nature of foreign policy, trade, and domestic stability.
Wolsey and Parliament
Wolsey could easily be characterised as attempting to rule without Parliament, since only two sessions were called: in 1515 and in 1523.
The first Parliament in 1515 caused problems for Wolsey over Hunne's Case and provided clear evidence of anti-clericalism, particularly in the City of London. The second Parliament met in 1523 and was called only to secure agreement to taxation as a result of the expensive foreign policy being pursued.
Hunne's Case: A Challenge to Church Authority
The Incident: Richard Hunne, a respectable London merchant tailor, refused to pay the usual mortuary fee to the Church when his child died. Hunne was arrested and placed in the Bishop of London's prison. He was found hanged there, and a London jury returned a verdict of murder, suggesting that the Bishop was complicit.
The Political Consequences: Parliament examined the case, and Cardinal Wolsey, as the senior representative of the Church in England, had to kneel before Parliament, requesting forgiveness. This humiliating moment demonstrated the strength of anti-clerical feeling and the limits of Church authority when confronted by parliamentary scrutiny.
MPs only assembled when the King needed them, not as a right, and they met to implement the King's wishes. Henry VIII next required Parliament in 1529 over his divorce proceedings.
Wolsey and Parliamentary Power
While Wolsey clearly preferred to avoid calling Parliament, the events of 1515 (Hunne's Case) and 1523 (taxation) demonstrated that he could not rule entirely without it when Henry required money or faced challenges to Church authority. This revealed a fundamental limitation of Wolsey's power.
Key dates
| Year | Event |
|---|---|
| 1513 | Wolsey became Henry's chief adviser |
| 1515 | Wolsey officially appointed Lord Chancellor; Parliament met over Hunne's Case |
| 1516 | Wolsey already planning legal reforms |
| 1517 | National enquiry into enclosures began |
| 1518 | Wolsey appointed Papal Legate |
| 1519 | Guistiniani's report praised Wolsey's justice |
| 1522 | National survey to assess tax capacity |
| 1523 | Wolsey became Bishop of Durham; Parliament met to approve subsidy; enclosure enquiries suspended |
| 1525 | Amicable Grant provoked widespread rebellion |
| 1526 | Eltham Ordinances reorganised Privy Chamber; recoinage and debasement; enclosure enquiries resumed |
| 1527 | Severe harvest failure |
| 1528 | Riots erupted across southern and eastern England |
| 1529 | Wolsey became Bishop of Winchester |
Key Points to Remember:
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Wolsey served as Lord Chancellor from 1515, exercising day-to-day control of government whilst carefully maintaining Henry VIII's favour against rival courtiers.
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Legal reforms strengthened Star Chamber (from approximately 12 to 120 cases yearly) and established the Court of Requests, earning Wolsey a reputation as defender of the poor, though his interventions were piecemeal rather than systematic.
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Financial reforms included the 1522 national survey (raising £200,000 in forced loans), introduction of the subsidy system in 1523, and the failed Amicable Grant of 1525 which provoked the only major rebellion of the first half of Henry's reign.
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Economic policies focused on enclosure enquiries (1517-18, suspended 1523, resumed 1526), though foreign policy disrupted trade and contributed to economic crisis, unemployment and riots by 1528.
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Parliament met only twice under Wolsey (1515 over Hunne's Case, 1523 for taxation), demonstrating that whilst Wolsey preferred to avoid Parliament, he could not rule entirely without it when Henry required money or support.