Ending Isolation (AQA A-Level History): Revision Notes
Ending isolation
By 1921, Bolshevik Russia found itself diplomatically isolated from the international community. The regime had been excluded from the League of Nations, the international organisation established by the Paris Peace Conferences to prevent future wars through negotiated settlements. The League operated on the principle of collective security — replacing traditional military alliances between great powers with joint measures by all member states to prevent aggression.
Collective Security Explained
Collective security represented a key principle of the post-war peace settlement, aiming to replace the dependence on military alliances between the great powers with joint measures by all members of the League to prevent acts of aggression. This principle held particular importance for the many new small states that emerged after the First World War.
Bolshevik Russia and the League of Nations
The exclusion of Bolshevik Russia from post-war international arrangements stemmed from ideological differences and fear. Lenin's regime had come to accept that world revolution would not materialise immediately, whilst the rest of the world recognised that 'Bolshevism' would not simply vanish. Both sides understood that Russia's isolation could not remain absolute. Some form of coexistence needed to be established, particularly regarding trade agreements.
The Soviet Union viewed the League of Nations with deep suspicion. In 1927, Stalin articulated this position clearly:
Stalin's Rejection of the League (1927)
"We are fighting with all our energy against all preparations for imperialist war. The Soviet Union is not prepared to become a part of that camouflage for imperialist machinations represented by the League of Nations."
This statement revealed the ideological gulf separating Soviet Russia from Western powers and explained why the regime showed no interest in joining the organisation.
Early trade contacts
Trade provided the first avenue for breaking Russia's isolation. When Britain finally ended its military intervention in Russia during 1920, the British government authorised the establishment of trade agreements. This decision effectively marked Britain's recognition that the Soviet state existed and would continue to exist. Lenin demonstrated particular enthusiasm for opening trade relations with Germany.
Georgy Chicherin, the deputy commissar for foreign affairs, emerged as the chief architect of this new approach to Soviet foreign policy. During 1921, several discussions took place between Chicherin and German representatives. These contacts represented early steps toward re-integrating Soviet Russia into international affairs whilst simultaneously fostering closer cooperation between Chicherin and representatives of Weimar Germany. The discussions paved the way for a more substantial diplomatic breakthrough.
Georgy Chicherin's role
Georgy Chicherin (1872-1936): Architect of Soviet Diplomacy
Chicherin came from a noble background but joined the Bolsheviks in 1918. He specialised in foreign affairs and served as Trotsky's deputy in negotiating the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk. His experience and diplomatic skills made him indispensable to the Soviet regime.
Key achievements:
- Played a leading role in the first Comintern congress in 1919
- Became instrumental in the Soviet delegation at the Genoa conference
- Served as chief Soviet negotiator at the Treaty of Berlin in 1926
- Continued until ill health forced his replacement by Maxim Litvinov in 1930
In 1922, Chicherin received an invitation to attend an important international economic conference held in Genoa. This invitation constituted a major step towards re-integrating Soviet Russia into international affairs. The Genoa conference demonstrated that Western powers could no longer simply ignore the Soviet state.
Treaty of Rapallo 1922
The discussions at Genoa led directly to the signing of the Treaty of Rapallo in April 1922. Rapallo, a seaside town near Genoa, provided a convenient location for German Foreign Minister Walther Rathenau and Chicherin to negotiate privately, away from other conference participants.
The treaty contained several important provisions:
Articles 1 and 2 established that both countries would waive all claims for compensation arising from the First World War. This removed a substantial financial burden and potential source of friction between the two states.
Article 3 concerned the reopening of formal diplomatic relations between Soviet Russia and Weimar Germany. This represented a breakthrough for the diplomatically isolated Soviet state.
Articles 4 and 5 dealt with establishing 'mutual goodwill' in commercial and economic relations. These articles provided the framework for expanded trade between the two countries.
Secret Military Cooperation
A secret additional agreement, signed in July 1922, authorised the German Army to conduct training and military exercises inside the USSR. This arrangement benefited both parties:
- Germany could circumvent the military restrictions imposed by the Treaty of Versailles
- Russia gained access to German military expertise and technology
In subsequent years, considerable attention focused on these secret military cooperation clauses, which represented a significant violation of the Versailles settlement.
Both Germany and Russia were 'outlaw' states in 1922 — Germany as a defeated power facing harsh peace terms, Russia as a revolutionary state excluded from the international community. The treaty agreed at Rapallo offered both countries a route out of unwelcome diplomatic isolation.
The most important factors bringing Germany and Russia together at Rapallo were trade opportunities and diplomatic recognition. For Lenin's regime, breaking out of isolation required pragmatic agreements with capitalist powers, even if this contradicted revolutionary ideology. For Germany, cooperation with Russia offered economic opportunities and a means of evading Versailles restrictions.
Key Points to Remember:
- Bolshevik Russia's diplomatic isolation in 1921 could not remain absolute; both sides recognised the need for some form of coexistence, particularly through trade agreements.
- Georgy Chicherin, as deputy commissar for foreign affairs, became the chief architect of Soviet foreign policy from 1921, pursuing closer relations with Weimar Germany.
- The Treaty of Rapallo (April 1922) broke Russia's diplomatic isolation by establishing formal relations with Germany, waiving war debts, and facilitating economic cooperation; a secret clause allowed German military training in the USSR.