Causes of the Civil War (AQA A-Level History): Revision Notes

Causes of the Civil War

Context and timing

The Russian Civil War began in summer 1918 without any formal declaration. Fighting erupted after the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk ended Russia's involvement with Germany, though the First World War continued on the Western Front. The war reflected deep divisions within Russian society about the Bolshevik seizure of power and the direction of the revolution.

Why opposition formed against the Bolsheviks

By early 1918, substantial sections of Russian society across the political spectrum had turned against Bolshevik rule. Multiple grievances drove this opposition, ranging from questions of democratic legitimacy to economic losses and ideological conflicts.

Questions of legitimacy and democratic process

Forcible seizure of power: The Bolsheviks took control in Moscow and Petrograd during October/November 1917 through armed force rather than democratic election. Right-wing opponents argued the Bolsheviks lacked legitimate authority to govern Russia, whilst left-wing critics maintained the Bolsheviks had disregarded the soviet councils that initially enabled their rise.

Electoral manipulation: When the Constituent Assembly elections failed to deliver Bolshevik control, Lenin forcibly dissolved the assembly. The Bolsheviks expelled left-wing Social Revolutionaries from government after these former allies opposed the German peace settlement.

Ideological and class opposition

Aristocratic and bourgeois resistance: Bolshevik ideology fundamentally threatened social groups who stood to lose wealth, status and property. Aristocrats and the bourgeoisie faced expropriation under Bolshevik economic policies, particularly the nationalisation of industry and repudiation (the rejection and cancellation) of tsarist debts. Some members of these groups particularly yearned for the restoration of the old tsarist regime, though others simply wanted Nicholas II returned to the throne without necessarily supporting autocracy.

Military officer opposition: Army officers, many from privileged backgrounds, objected to the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk signed with Germany in March 1918. They viewed the peace terms as humiliating and a betrayal of Russia's wartime allies. Officers with property and wealth also opposed Bolshevik economic restructuring.

Moderate socialist disillusionment: Even some left-wing groups felt alienated. The Mensheviks and moderate socialists resented being sidelined despite the soviets having helped place the Bolsheviks in power. Lenin had forced right-wing Social Revolutionaries and Kadets out of government.

Economic grievances and material losses

The economic consequences of Bolshevik policies and the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk created widespread hardship that pushed many groups into opposition.

Loss of Ukrainian territory: The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk of March 1918 ceded Ukraine to German control, which threatened to worsen food shortages in Russia. Distribution problems already caused severe rationing, whilst bourgeois groups suffered particular disenfranchisement. The initial euphoria following the collapse of tsardom had given way to disillusionment as economic conditions deteriorated.

Business and landowning interests: Russians with land, money or business interests faced losing everything under Bolshevik social and economic policies. The nationalisation programme directly threatened their material security.

National minorities seeking independence

National minorities within the former Russian Empire, including Georgians, saw an opportunity in the prevailing chaos to fight for self-determination. These groups doubted Bolshevik promises to grant them independence and sought to exploit the uncertain political situation.

Limited allegiance and local rivalries

Some individuals with limited political commitment saw the fluid situation created by the Bolshevik revolution and wartime economic chaos as a chance to pursue personal advancement or settle local rivalries. The collapse of stable authority created opportunities for those seeking power or revenge.

Growing violence

The formation of the Whites

The diverse groups opposing the Bolsheviks gradually coalesced into armed forces during 1918. Though united by opposition, they shared little common ground beyond hatred and fear of Bolshevik rule.

Leadership and organisation

Former tsarist officers assumed leadership of White forces. General Denikin commanded armies in the south, Admiral Kolchak operated in Siberia, General Yudenich fought in Estonia, and Baron Wrangel replaced Denikin in the Crimea. These commanders brought military expertise but struggled to coordinate their geographically dispersed forces.

Numbers of Bolshevik opponents organised themselves into armies or armed groups that resembled organised military forces. White armies attracted support from various quarters, though their coalition remained fragile due to incompatible objectives and ideologies.

Immediate triggers

While long-term grievances created the conditions for civil war, specific incidents in spring and summer 1918 transformed simmering opposition into open warfare.

The Czech Legion incident

In March 1918, the Bolsheviks granted permission to the Czechoslovak 'Army of Liberation' (the Czech Legion) to travel eastwards through Siberia. This force comprised 45,000 Czech nationalists who had fought against Germany and Austria-Hungary during the war. They intended to continue fighting on the Western Front by travelling along the Trans-Siberian railway.

Creation of the Volunteer Army

By spring 1918, an anti-Bolshevik Volunteer Army had formed in southern Russia, partly financed by Germany. This development demonstrated that organised military opposition was gathering strength even before the Czech Legion incident. The Bolsheviks responded to the growing threat by relocating their capital from Petrograd to Moscow in March 1918, placing themselves in a more defensible position.

The international dimension

The Civil War emerged partly from involvement by several foreign governments with their own agendas. These countries opposed Russia's withdrawal from the war against Germany, feared Bolshevism threatened their own governments, or sought to settle old scores through supporting particular groups.

International involvement transformed what might have remained internal unrest into a sustained civil war.