Emergence of a ‘Superpower’ (AQA A-Level History): Revision Notes
Emergence of a 'Superpower'
Soviet Union's transformation from isolationism to global power
Before 1941, Stalin's primary objective for the Soviet Union was not international dominance but internal development. His aim was to keep the USSR isolated from global conflicts, allowing time to complete the transformation of the Soviet economy through industrialisation and collectivisation. However, the Second World War fundamentally altered this position.
The shift from isolationism to global power represents one of the most dramatic transformations in 20th-century international relations. Understanding this transition is essential for comprehending the Cold War that followed.
Wartime military expansion and territorial growth
During the war, the Soviet Union constructed extensive military-industrial capabilities. By May 1945, the armed forces had grown to 7.5 million well-equipped troops. Territorial expansion accompanied this military build-up. The USSR absorbed the Baltic States (Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania) and substantial portions of eastern Poland. The Red Army maintained control over numerous nation states in central and eastern Europe, including Romania, Hungary, Poland, and parts of eastern Germany (including Berlin). This military presence established the USSR as a dominant force across the European continent.
The European great powers had been substantially weakened by six years of warfare. France had been defeated and occupied, while Britain, though victorious, emerged exhausted and financially ruined. Germany, the former continental hegemon, lay defeated and partitioned. Into this power vacuum stepped the USSR, which now stood alongside the American superpower (the United States, which possessed comparable global reach and resources) as one of two nations positioned to shape the post-war international order.
The concept of a power vacuum in post-1945 Europe is crucial for understanding Soviet expansion. With traditional European powers weakened or destroyed, only the USSR and USA had the capacity to fill this void, setting the stage for their rivalry.
Wartime diplomacy and the 'Big Three'
The emergence of Soviet superpower status was reflected in the diplomatic architecture of the Grand Alliance (the wartime coalition between the USSR, Britain, and the United States). Once Allied victory appeared inevitable by summer 1943, a series of summit meetings determined post-war arrangements:
- Tehran, November 1943: First conference to include Stalin
- Moscow, October 1944: Churchill met with Stalin
- Yalta, February 1945: The 'Big Three' conference
- Potsdam, July 1945: Final wartime summit, held after Germany's defeat
By the Potsdam Conference, Britain's diminished status was apparent. The war had bankrupted the British Empire, which was clearly in decline. The conference revealed that Britain would be overshadowed by the two emerging superpowers.
The progression of these conferences demonstrates the Soviet Union's growing diplomatic weight. Stalin's inclusion at Tehran marked formal recognition of the USSR as a major Allied power, while by Potsdam, the bipolar nature of post-war power was unmistakable.
Nuclear weapons and superpower status
In 1945, the United States revealed it had developed an atomic bomb, subsequently using this weapon to end the war against Japan. This placed the USSR at a clear disadvantage in the post-war power balance. Stalin responded by appointing Lavrenty Beria to accelerate the development of a Soviet atomic weapon.
Beria was a ruthless secret police chief who had overseen the NKVD's reign of terror during the purges. Stalin committed enormous resources to the nuclear programme under Beria's direction. The first successful Soviet atomic bomb test occurred in August 1949. Possession of nuclear weapons definitively confirmed the Soviet Union's superpower status.
This status received formal recognition in the United Nations (the international organisation formed in 1945, intended to be more effective than the League of Nations had been after 1919). The USSR became one of the five permanent members of the UN Security Council, giving it a veto over major international decisions.
Nuclear weapons were essential to superpower status
The period from 1945-1949 when only the USA possessed atomic weapons created an imbalance in the superpower relationship. The Soviet achievement of nuclear capability in 1949 restored this balance and marked the true beginning of the bipolar Cold War world.
USA: the rival superpower
The American rise to global dominance followed a trajectory remarkably similar to the Soviet experience. Before 1941, the United States maintained a broadly isolationist foreign policy. Like the USSR, America was drawn into war involuntarily through sudden aggression (the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor). Once engaged, the United States built a massive war machine, exploiting previously untapped economic and industrial potential.
American involvement extended across two theatres simultaneously: Europe and the Pacific. The US economy financed not only its own war effort but also provided substantial material support to its allies through programmes like Lend-Lease. This economic power enabled a consumer boom at home even while fighting the war. By 1945, the United States had emerged as the only nation with the resources and reach to rival Soviet power.
The parallel trajectories of Soviet and American emergence as superpowers is striking: both began from isolationist positions, both were drawn into war through sudden attacks, and both exploited vast untapped resources to build unprecedented military power. However, their ideological opposition would define the post-war era.
Key Points to Remember:
- The USSR transformed from an isolationist state focused on internal development (pre-1941) into one of two global superpowers by 1945, alongside the United States.
- Soviet superpower status rested on military strength (7.5 million troops), territorial expansion (Baltic States, eastern Poland), control over eastern Europe, and eventual nuclear weapons capability (achieved in August 1949).
- The wartime 'Big Three' conferences (Tehran 1943, Moscow 1944, Yalta February 1945, Potsdam July 1945) reflected the USSR's new diplomatic standing, though by Potsdam it was clear that Britain would be overshadowed by the two superpowers.