US Intervention in Latin America and the Caribbean (AQA A-Level History): Revision Notes
US Intervention in Latin America and the Caribbean
Introduction: US fears and the Monroe Doctrine legacy
Washington perceived Central America, Latin America, and the Caribbean as falling within its sphere of influence—often described as America's "own back yard". During the Cold War, US policymakers became increasingly anxious about the emergence of communist regimes or left-leaning governments that might align with Moscow. Such governments could potentially receive economic aid and military assistance from the USSR, raising the alarming possibility of Soviet military installations being established close to American territory. This underlying fear shaped US policy throughout the region during the 1970s and 1980s.
The concept of a US "sphere of influence" in Latin America dates back to the Monroe Doctrine of 1823, which warned European powers against further colonization in the Americas. During the Cold War, this doctrine was reinterpreted to justify US intervention against perceived communist threats in the Western Hemisphere.
Chile: undermining democracy to prevent socialism
US economic interests and initial concerns
US corporations held substantial investments in Chile's copper and silver mining industries. Additionally, an American company controlled Chile's telecommunications infrastructure. These economic interests made Chile strategically important to Washington. However, by 1970, growing anxiety emerged that Chile might elect a socialist government sympathetic to communism.
Allende's election and the 40 Committee
In September 1970, Salvador Allende, a socialist politician who did not command a majority in the presidential election, emerged as Chile's likely president. Washington viewed Allende as comparable to Castro—another potential communist leader in Latin America. The Central Intelligence Agency received instructions to manage covert operations designed to block Allende from assuming office. The 40 Committee played a central role in this effort. Even this committee was excluded from the CIA's planning to prevent Allende's presidency, though the initial coup attempt failed and Allende won the election democratically.
Key Figure: Salvador Allende (1908-73)
Salvador Allende became the first Marxist politician to win a free presidential election in Latin America. His administration introduced socialist reforms including land redistribution and nationalisation of industries. A US-backed military coup in 1973 ended both his presidency and his life, bringing Chilean democracy to an abrupt halt for over four decades.
The 40 Committee's role
Nixon established the 40 Committee in 1970 as a coordinating body for covert operations deemed to serve US national interests. This committee replaced similar earlier groups. Its initial objective focused on preventing Allende from winning Chile's presidency following the inconclusive 1970 election. The committee continued operating until 1976, overseeing multiple covert interventions across Latin America.
Allende's socialist reforms
Once in office, Allende's socialist programme became rapidly apparent. His government seized millions of hectares of land, redistributing them as farm co-operatives. A nationalisation programme targeted banking systems and brought the copper industry under state control. The 40 Committee quickly allocated substantial funds to destabilise Allende's government.
Washington showed no reluctance about intervening covertly in another democratically elected leadership. This marked a significant contradiction in US Cold War policy: while claiming to defend democracy against communism, the United States actively worked to undermine a government that had come to power through free and fair elections.
US pressure extended to the World Bank, which ceased lending money to Chile and withdrew existing economic aid under American influence.
Economic collapse and the coup
US economic pressure produced severe consequences. Inflation spiralled upward, industrial production declined, agricultural output stagnated, and unemployment increased. Numerous strikes occurred, with some instigated through CIA intervention. The resulting economic crisis stimulated riots and widespread disorder. This created the conditions for military intervention.
Key Figure: Augusto Pinochet (1915-2006)
Allende appointed Pinochet as Commander-in-Chief of Chile's army in August 1973. Within weeks, Pinochet led the military coup that overthrew Allende. He subsequently opened Chile's economy to global market forces, transforming Chile into a South American economic powerhouse. His authoritarian rule, maintained through dictatorship, continued until 1990.
General Augusto Pinochet executed a military coup in September 1973. Allende died during the coup, and his regime was overthrown. Pro-Allende supporters faced systematic persecution, with many rounded up and killed. Major civil rights violations persisted for years following the coup. Allende's socialist reforms were reversed entirely.
Long-term consequences
The CIA's involvement in covert US government policy towards Chile and its strategy of undermining a democratically elected government eventually became public knowledge. However, officials maintained that such actions remained necessary to protect American interests. The fundamental justification persisted: due to US actions, Chile endured a brutal dictatorship lasting 25 years.
The Chilean intervention revealed a critical tension in US Cold War policy: the willingness to sacrifice democratic principles in the name of preventing communist expansion. This pattern would repeat throughout Latin America, damaging US credibility and raising serious questions about American commitment to democratic values.
Grenada: the 1983 invasion
Background and the Coard faction
In October 1983, Ronald Reagan feared that Grenada would become a communist base in the Caribbean following a military coup led by the pro-leftist Coard faction. The New Jewel Movement had led a successful leftist revolution in 1979 that banned all other political parties and accepted assistance from the USSR and Cuba. A dispute developed among the high-ranking members of the New Jewel Movement in October 1983, and Bernard Coard (born 1945) seized power briefly before being overthrown by General Hudson Austin three days later.
The US invasion
Reagan assembled a 7000-strong invasion force. Beyond the presence of a handful of Cuban military advisers on the island, evidence supporting claims of communist intentions to establish a pro-Soviet or pro-Cuban regime remained limited. The stated justification for invasion focused on protecting US medical students studying in Grenada.
The limited evidence of genuine Soviet threat in Grenada raised questions about the true motivations for the invasion. Critics argued that the operation served more as a demonstration of US resolve in the region rather than a response to a genuine security threat.
International response
International reaction proved unambiguous. The USSR interpreted the invasion as imperialism and condemned it. Soviet negotiators withdrew from Geneva arms control discussions. Soviet Foreign Minister Andrei Gromyko warned the world situation was deteriorating towards a dangerous precipice, with nuclear war avoidance becoming the primary global concern.
Margaret Thatcher resented Washington's failure to consult Britain before taking action against a former British colony. The USA faced pressure to exercise its veto power when the UN Security Council censured the invasion. Only Americans accepted the administration's justification that Grenada represented, as Reagan stated in a televised speech on 27 October 1983, a "Soviet-Cuban colony, being readied as a major military bastion to export terror and undermine democracy. We got there just in time."
The Grenada invasion exposed significant divisions between the USA and its closest allies. Even Britain, America's most reliable Cold War partner, publicly criticized the action. This demonstrated how unilateral US interventions could strain vital international relationships and undermine collective Western unity during the Cold War.
Nicaragua: funding the Contras
The Sandinista revolution
In June 1979, the Sandinista National Liberation Front (FSLN), led by Daniel Ortega Saavedra, seized power from General Anastasio Somoza. Carter initially recognised the Sandinista government and provided assistance, hoping to encourage democracy and prevent Nicaragua from aligning with Moscow. Reagan, however, regarded the Sandinistas as communists and drew parallels between Nicaragua and Cuba.
US support for counter-revolutionaries
In March 1981, the USA established an anti-communist group to oppose the Sandinistas. The Contrarrevolucionarios (the Contras) were founded by former members of the old business classes and Somoza's National Guard. The USA supplied funds, equipment, and training to the Contras. Honduras, a pro-American state, provided a safe haven for them under US pressure.
The Sandinista response
In March 1982, responding to a major Contra attack, the Sandinistas imposed press censorship, restricted civil liberties, and introduced universal military conscription. This created precisely the authoritarian image Reagan wanted to cultivate regarding Nicaragua.
The Sandinista restrictions on civil liberties occurred in response to external pressure from US-backed Contras. This created a self-fulfilling prophecy: US support for counter-revolutionaries prompted authoritarian measures, which then served to justify further US intervention on the grounds that Nicaragua was becoming a dictatorship.
Reagan's justification
In a speech to Congress on 27 April 1983, Reagan articulated his administration's position on Nicaragua. He stated American intentions clearly: "We do not seek to overthrow it. Our interest is to ensure that it does not infect its neighbours through the export of subversion and violence." Reagan argued that if Central America fell, consequences would follow for US interests in Asia and Europe, and for alliances such as NATO. He warned: "The national security of all the Americas is at stake in Central America. If we cannot defend ourselves there, we cannot expect to prevail elsewhere. Our credibility would collapse, our alliances would crumble, and the safety of our homeland would be put in jeopardy."
Illegal activities and congressional restrictions
Reagan's administration increasingly engaged in activities that violated legal boundaries or raised serious questions:
- To circumvent congressional restrictions on aid to the Contras, the CIA attempted to persuade US allies, including Israel and Taiwan, to provide funding instead.
- Senior American officials facilitated arms sales to Iran despite a US embargo on weapons exports to that country. Profits from these transactions would fund black market arms purchases for the Contras.
- The CIA mined Nicaraguan harbours. When the International Court of Justice ordered reparations, the USA refused to comply.
Circumventing Democratic Oversight
These actions demonstrated the extent to which the Reagan administration prioritised undermining the Sandinista government, even when it meant circumventing democratic oversight and international law. The willingness to violate congressional restrictions and international legal rulings revealed how anti-communist objectives could override both domestic democratic processes and international legal obligations.
Remember!
Key Points to Remember:
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The USA viewed Latin America and the Caribbean as its sphere of influence and feared communist expansion throughout the region during the Cold War period.
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In Chile, the CIA and 40 Committee worked to destabilise Salvador Allende's democratically elected socialist government through covert operations and economic pressure, leading to Pinochet's 1973 military coup and 25 years of dictatorship.
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The 1983 Grenada invasion revealed divisions between the USA and its allies (particularly the UK and USSR), with Reagan justifying intervention on anti-communist grounds despite limited evidence of genuine Soviet threat.
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In Nicaragua, Reagan's administration funded the Contras against the Sandinista government, engaging in illegal activities including arms sales to Iran and mining harbours to circumvent congressional restrictions.
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US interventions in the region consistently prioritised preventing communist influence over supporting democratic principles, damaging America's international credibility and relations with allies.