Introduction (AQA A-Level History): Revision Notes

Introduction

Scope and chronology of the period

This unit examines Britain's transformation from shortly after the Second World War until the early twenty-first century. The period from 1951 to 2007 witnessed profound changes in British politics, society and Britain's position within the international order, yet also saw notable continuities that shaped the nation's development. Understanding both change and continuity remains essential for analysing how post-war Britain evolved.

The narrative begins in 1951, marking the start of an extended period during which Conservative governments held office. Although the Conservatives controlled government until 1964, their policies remained heavily influenced by the preceding Labour administration led by Clement Attlee. The Attlee government of 1945 to 1951 established the foundation of what became known as the post-war consensus, a broad political agreement that endured until the 1970s. This consensus shaped British political and economic life for over two decades, creating a framework within which both major parties operated.

Origins of the post-war consensus (1945-1951)

Post-war consensus refers to the broad agreement between major political parties on fundamental policies, centred on a mixed economy, comprehensive welfare provision and full employment. This consensus emerged from wartime experiences and post-war aspirations rather than pre-war political traditions.

The philosophical foundation rested on a mixed economy—an economic system combining state intervention with private enterprise to promote economic growth. This approach drew on the theories of economist John Maynard Keynes. During the 1930s, Britain's economy had been left largely to private sector management. That decade witnessed the Great Depression, bringing severe unemployment and hunger marches that exposed the failures of unregulated capitalism.

In 1942, as the tide turned against Germany, the Beveridge Report appeared, calling for elimination of the Five Giant Evils:

1. Want
2. Squalor
3. Ignorance
4. Idleness
5. Disease

These five problems had plagued British society for generations. The report became a bestseller, capturing public imagination. The collective war effort had fostered unity across social classes and made middle-class citizens more aware of poverty's extent. By 1945, the nation sought a better future rather than a return to pre-war conditions.

The Labour Party offered this vision and secured a landslide victory in the 1945 general election. Labour then implemented its manifesto promises. The government created the National Health Service (NHS)—a comprehensive healthcare system free at the point of use. It also constructed a welfare state designed to protect citizens 'from cradle to grave', providing support throughout life from birth to death. Additionally, Labour committed to maintaining full employment through cooperation with employers and trade unions, using Keynesian demand management to prevent mass unemployment.

The 1950s: consensus in practice

Throughout the 1950s, these core elements of the post-war consensus persisted, despite Conservative Party governance. Not every Conservative politician believed this approach represented the optimal path forward; some harboured doubts about extensive state involvement. Nevertheless, Conservative governments maintained the basic framework established by Labour.

The 1950s proved a period of relative prosperity. Unemployment levels remained low, marking a stark contrast with inter-war depression. Affluence expanded across society as real wages increased. Technological developments improved living standards substantially. These economic changes produced significant social transformations:

• Young people gained economic independence, creating a distinct youth culture and giving rise to the concept of the teenager as a separate demographic category
• Women's lives changed as new domestic appliances—washing machines, refrigerators, vacuum cleaners—reduced household labour time and altered traditional gender roles
• Educational opportunities expanded, reducing class-based barriers to advancement and enabling greater social mobility
• Immigration from the Empire increased, as workers from Commonwealth countries responded to labour shortages and economic opportunities in Britain

However, beneath this surface prosperity, underlying problems accumulated. Britain carried enormous debts from the Second World War, constraining government spending. The Cold War arms race between the United States and the Soviet Union placed additional pressure on British finances, as Britain attempted to maintain its status as a major power with nuclear capabilities. Furthermore, Britain's determination to sustain its world role as head of an Empire created fiscal strain, as maintaining overseas territories and military commitments absorbed resources needed for domestic investment.

Meanwhile, Conservative governments appeared increasingly disconnected from the emerging modern Britain, seeming outdated when contrasted with rapid social and cultural change. Paradoxically, Britain simultaneously appeared to lead the modern world in certain spheres—British fashion and pop music dominated internationally, and England's football team won the 1966 World Cup, creating a sense of national achievement and modernity.

The 1960s: reform, modernisation and underlying problems

In this context, the Labour Party, led by Harold Wilson and promising economic modernisation and scientific progress, won the general elections of 1964 and 1966. Wilson's appeal rested partly on his image as accessible and state-educated, contrasting with the more aristocratic Conservative leadership. His government pledged to harness technology and planning to renew Britain's economic performance.

The later 1960s witnessed substantial reform and modernisation of British society. A wave of liberalising legislation fundamentally altered social norms and legal frameworks. Parliament passed laws reforming:

• Abortion access
• Homosexuality (partially decriminalising male homosexual acts)
• Censorship (relaxing controls on published material and theatrical performances)
• Capital punishment (abolishing the death penalty)
• Divorce procedures (making separation easier)
• Education (expanding comprehensive schooling and higher education)

These reforms transformed British society, though their long-term consequences remained contested.

Nevertheless, these same underlying economic problems persisted, limiting what government could achieve both domestically and in foreign affairs. Decolonisation—the process of dismantling the British Empire—meant that Britain now sat at the head of a Commonwealth of states rather than governing an Empire directly. This transformation affected Britain's international identity and required recalibration of its world role. Britain needed to balance relationships with the United States and Europe while managing Commonwealth connections. The government struggled to reconcile these competing priorities.

The 1970s: breakdown of consensus

During the 1970s, issues that had been developing beneath the surface during the 1950s and 1960s emerged fully. Britain finally achieved entry into the European Economic Community, but simultaneously the post-war consensus collapsed. The Conservative government from 1970 to 1974 and the subsequent Labour governments from 1974 to 1979 both confronted severe economic crises that proved difficult to contain. Rising inflation, growing unemployment and declining industrial competitiveness created a situation economists termed 'stagflation'—the combination of economic stagnation with inflation.

Neither Conservative nor Labour governments succeeded in preventing the escalation of the Troubles in Northern Ireland. Violence intensified, British troops deployed to the province faced mounting casualties, and political solutions remained elusive. Both main parties found themselves indirectly brought down by conflicts with trade unions. Industrial unrest peaked during this period, with major strikes disrupting essential services and suggesting fundamental breakdown in the corporatist arrangements that had underpinned the post-war consensus.

The emergence of punk subculture and football hooliganism suggested a society in conflict with itself. These phenomena reflected deeper social malaise—youth alienation, urban decay, and breakdown of traditional social controls. The optimism of the 1960s seemed distant as Britain confronted industrial decline, social fragmentation and political paralysis.

The Thatcher years and beyond (1979-1997)

Margaret Thatcher's election in 1979 marked a decisive break with the old consensus. The Conservative Party moved rightward ideologically, abandoning commitment to full employment and Keynesian demand management. Thatcherism—the political and economic philosophy associated with Margaret Thatcher—rejected the mixed economy model. State intervention in the economy was substantially reduced through:

• Privatisation of nationalised industries
• Deregulation of markets
• Reduction of government spending
• Legislative restrictions on trade unions that curtailed their power

Economic decline appeared to be halted, though whether it was actually reversed remained debatable. Manufacturing continued to decline, but service industries expanded.

Britain reasserted its international role, both individually through the Falklands War (1982) and as a partner of the United States in the final phase of the Cold War. Thatcher developed a close relationship with US President Ronald Reagan, strengthening the transatlantic alliance. However, divisions within society—between rich and poor, North and South, black and white, and within Northern Ireland—not only remained but became more pronounced. Industrial regions in the North suffered particularly from deindustrialisation, while London and the South East experienced financial services expansion. These geographical inequalities created what commentators termed a 'North-South divide'.

By 1997, after eighteen years in government, the Conservative Party appeared exhausted and disconnected from contemporary social attitudes. The party became increasingly split over Britain's role in Europe, with divisions between Eurosceptics and pro-Europeans becoming impossible to manage. Scandals and sleaze undermined Conservative credibility. In contrast, the Labour opposition, led by Tony Blair, possessed a media-friendly leader and appeared to offer a modern alternative suited to contemporary Britain.

New Labour and contemporary Britain (1997-2007)

Blair's Labour government assumed office amid substantial optimism, which appeared justified when the administration ended the conflict in Northern Ireland through the Good Friday Agreement (1998) and presided over sustained economic growth. Unemployment fell, living standards rose, and investment in public services increased, particularly in health and education.

Nevertheless, Britain's position within the international order remained controversial. The relationship with the United States, particularly in the context of the wars in Afghanistan (from 2001) and Iraq (from 2003), proved deeply divisive. Blair's close alignment with US President George W. Bush and participation in these conflicts generated substantial domestic opposition and damaged Labour's reputation. At home, these foreign policy controversies fuelled new tensions and divisions within society. Despite economic success during most of this period, underlying structural problems persisted. Regional inequalities continued, social mobility stalled, and questions about Britain's identity and role remained unresolved.

Recurring themes and continuities

Throughout this entire period from 1951 to 2007, certain issues recurred repeatedly, demonstrating historical continuity despite surface changes:

• The role of the State in the economy remained a constant debate—should government intervene actively to manage economic performance, or should markets be left largely free? This question divided parties internally and shaped electoral contests.
• Britain's position in the world required continuous reassessment—what should Britain's relationship with the United States, Europe and the Commonwealth be? How should Britain balance international commitments against domestic needs? From the failed EEC application in the 1960s to the Iraq War in the 2000s, this tension persisted.
• Social change and its consequences generated ongoing tensions—which reforms represented genuine progress, and which threatened valuable traditions? From the permissive society debates of the 1960s to immigration controversies spanning the entire period, these questions remained central to political discourse.

Remember!