Youth (AQA A-Level History): Revision Notes
Youth
The emergence of youth subcultures
By the 1950s and 1960s, a distinct youth market had developed in Britain. Young people spent disposable income in ways that expressed membership of particular social groups. Earlier, musical preferences primarily distinguished children from their parents. However, by the 1970s, the youth market had fragmented considerably. Different musical tastes, fashion choices and lifestyle patterns now indicated membership of specific subcultures rather than simply identifying someone as young.
The shift from a unified "youth culture" to multiple subcultures represented a significant social change. By the 1970s, what music you listened to, how you dressed, and where you spent your time could identify you as belonging to a particular social group, not just as "young."
Musical developments
Progressive rock and glam rock
Progressive rock (often shortened to 'prog rock') built upon the musical sophistication established by 1960s groups such as the Beatles and the Kinks. Groups including Pink Floyd and Genesis created extended compositions with increasingly complex arrangements. These performances demanded multiple musicians and advanced music technology. Songs grew longer and required higher levels of technical skill from performers.
Glam rock emphasised theatrical presentation. Performers wore elaborate stage costumes and makeup, often adopting stage personas that separated their public image from their private identity. David Jones performed as 'David Bowie', while Bowie himself created the character of 'Ziggy Stardust', a stage persona within his existing stage identity. This layering of performance created what some described as "a play within a play".
Prog rock vs. Glam rock:
While both styles emerged in the early 1970s, they emphasised different aspects of music. Progressive rock focused on musical complexity and technical skill, whilst glam rock prioritised visual spectacle and theatrical performance. Both required significant resources and technology, distinguishing them from the stripped-down punk movement that would follow.
Punk rock
Late 1970s and early 1980s punk followed reggae's structural approach. Lyrics consisted of brief slogans repeated multiple times, often delivered through shouting rather than conventional singing. The musical structure was deliberately simplified, using limited chord sequences repeated frequently. Performances were characteristically loud and extremely fast. Whereas Pink Floyd had recorded 'Money' in 7/4 time signature, punk maintained the traditional 4/4 time of conventional pop music. This created music designed for energetic dancing, contrasting sharply with some progressive rock pieces that discouraged such physical response.
Punk and unemployment:
The radical simplification of punk rock coincided with rising unemployment among young people. Some commentators termed punk 'dole-queue rock', drawing attention to how unemployment particularly affected the young. John Street noted that unemployment represented "a trend to which the young were especially vulnerable".
Analysis of punk lyrics reveals political awareness was not universal. However, several prominent bands addressed political themes. The Sex Pistols' 1977 single 'God Save the Queen' challenged the monarchy and suggested Britain operated as a fascist state. The Clash's 'London Calling' and The Jam's 'Eton Rifles' similarly engaged with political subjects.
Other musical developments
The 1970s witnessed considerable musical diversity beyond these dominant trends:
- New wave and post-punk emerged as distinct genres, featuring groups such as the Boomtown Rats and Ian Dury.
- Folk and folk rock maintained audiences, with artists including Fairport Convention and Steeleye Span continuing to perform.
- Heavy metal developed through bands such as Black Sabbath and Led Zeppelin, characterised by amplified sound and extended instrumental sections.
- Jazz fusion represented a notable development, combining jazz improvisation with rock instrumentation. Soft Machine exemplified this style.
In classical music, Minimalism became both prominent and controversial. Influenced by American composers Steve Reich and John Adams, this style began appearing in religious compositions by John Tavener.
Fashion and appearance
Fashion retailers recognised opportunities to market clothing that affirmed social group membership. Different subcultures adopted distinctive appearances:
Punk fashion featured deliberately torn or damaged clothing. Hairstyles included the mohican (head largely shaved, leaving an elevated, stiffened crest, sometimes coloured).
Hippie style persisted from the 1960s, representing an alternative or anti-establishment approach. Characteristics included:
- Long hair
- Appreciation for progressive rock or folk music
- Loose and often decorative but impractical clothing
- Loosely defined revolutionary political positions, particularly anti-war sentiment influenced by American opposition to the Vietnam War (which continued through much of the 1970s)
- A mobile lifestyle involving attendance at various concerts and festivals
- Tie-dyed clothing and the smell of incense (particularly patchouli)
Skinhead appearance included Doc Marten boots and visible braces holding up trousers. This subculture tended towards aggressive behaviour and alignment with right-wing political positions holding anti-immigrant and racist views.
Subculture identity through appearance:
Each youth subculture used fashion as a form of communication and identity. What you wore immediately signalled which social group you belonged to. This was so pronounced that retailers could market specific clothing lines to particular subcultures, turning youth identity into a commercial opportunity.
Social attitudes and responses
Youth subcultures attracted hostile media attention. The tendency to emphasise negative aspects meant that hippie boys received criticism for supposedly effeminate hairstyles risking head lice, whilst skinheads faced criticism for short hair linked to football hooliganism. All drug use attracted severe criticism.
Moral panic:
Sociologists and social historians describe this pattern as moral panic – the perception that increasing wickedness threatens society's wellbeing. Media coverage often focused exclusively on negative aspects of youth culture, regardless of which subculture was being discussed. Hippies and skinheads, despite representing opposite ends of the political spectrum, both faced hostile commentary.
Environmentalism
Environmental concerns produced organised pressure groups during this period:
The Council for the Protection of Rural England (CPRE), formed in 1926, opposed ribbon development and supported green belt policies. Ribbon development describes the growth of urban areas through additional buildings constructed along roads extending from towns and cities. Green belts are countryside areas immediately surrounding urban centres where building is prohibited or severely restricted to prevent uncontrolled urban expansion and ensure town-dwellers retain countryside access. The CPRE promoted national parks and designating outstanding natural beauty areas, enjoying support from politicians, journalists and royal family members.
Friends of the Earth (FOE) was founded in the USA in 1969 and established UK operations within approximately two years. Initially focusing on nuclear energy, the organisation expanded to address transport, waste management and food production issues.
Greenpeace began in the USA during the early 1970s. The organisation developed extensive criticism of political, military, agricultural and industrial practices based on their environmental impact, particularly concerning biodiversity. This term describes the range of life forms currently present on Earth, frequently used in debates about human environmental impact. In 1972, volunteers sailed into areas where environmental damage was occurring to draw public attention to these issues.
Timeline of environmental pressure groups:
The three major environmental organisations emerged at different times, each with distinct focuses:
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CPRE (1926): Oldest organisation, focused on protecting rural landscapes from urban expansion through opposing ribbon development and supporting green belts.
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Friends of the Earth (1969): Initially concerned with nuclear energy, later broadened scope to include transport, waste, and food production.
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Greenpeace (early 1970s): Most radical approach, using direct action (such as sailing into affected areas) to draw attention to environmental damage and its impact on biodiversity.
Key environmental terms:
- Ribbon development: The growth of urban areas by developing additional buildings along roads that extend from towns and cities
- Green belts: Areas of countryside immediately around urban centres where building is banned or restricted to prevent uncontrolled expansion
- Biodiversity: The range of life forms currently present on Earth, frequently used in debates about human environmental impact
Key Points to Remember:
- By the 1970s, youth spending patterns reflected membership of specific subcultures rather than simply distinguishing young people from their parents
- Punk rock deliberately simplified musical structure and was associated with youth unemployment ('dole-queue rock'), with some bands like the Sex Pistols, The Clash and The Jam addressing political issues
- Different youth subcultures (punk, hippie, skinhead) adopted distinctive fashion and appearance, each attracting hostile media commentary and contributing to moral panic
- Three major environmental pressure groups operated during this period: CPRE (1926), Friends of the Earth (1969), and Greenpeace (early 1970s), each focusing on different aspects of environmental protection