Media, Leisure, Science and Censorship (AQA A-Level History): Revision Notes
Media, Leisure, Science and Censorship
The expansion of the mass media
Television ownership and programming
By the 1960s, television had become a dominant feature in British households. Approximately 90% of homes possessed a television set, providing viewers with three channels following the launch of BBC2 in 1964. This expansion of choice coincided with rising affluence and falling prices for television sets, making ownership increasingly accessible across social classes.
The introduction of colour television marked a technological milestone. First used intermittently from summer 1967, colour broadcasting became more widespread during the late 1960s as colour television sets became more affordable and common in homes. This technological advancement transformed the viewing experience and encouraged programme makers to develop more visually appealing content.
Television programming underwent substantial changes during this period as broadcasters sought to cater for varied audiences and create more engaging shows. While news and sport maintained their position as staple content, entertainment programming became bolder and more experimental.
The Prisoner exemplified this shift - a futuristic drama set in 'the Village' that explored themes of freedom, personal identity and democracy through allegorical storytelling. This programme demonstrated how television content was becoming more sophisticated and willing to tackle complex themes.
Comedy programming evolved dramatically during the decade. Monty Python's Flying Circus, which debuted in 1969, pioneered the sketch show format and introduced a surreal, unconventional style of comedy to television audiences. The Monty Python group had spent the 1960s developing their distinctive comedic approach, working on various comedy programmes as writers and performers before launching their own show.
Print media and political satire
Private Eye had established itself as a satirical magazine before Wilson's government took office in 1964. The magazine specialised in exposing political trivia and perceived impropriety through satirical commentary. Its television counterpart, That Was The Week That Was (or TW3), brought similar satirical content to the screen, though neither publication significantly altered political behaviour despite their popularity.
The magazine's column Mrs Wilson's Diary purported to document the trivial concerns of the Prime Minister's wife, Mary Wilson, serving as a vehicle for broader satirical commentary on Wilson's government. When a theatrical adaptation based on this column faced censorship from the Lord Chamberlain before the Theatres Act 1968 came into force, Wilson perceived this as unfair treatment by the satirists.
The austerity package introduced in summer 1966 to address devaluation concerns prompted particularly harsh satirical treatment of Wilson in Private Eye. The magazine also criticised his refusal to condemn American policy in Vietnam outright, depicting him in a cartoon as subservient to President Johnson.
The Sun newspaper launched in 1964 as a broadsheet with the slogan 'time for a newspaper, born of the age we live in'. This positioning aimed to appeal to women and teenagers, demographics advertisers particularly valued. Initial sales exceeded expectations, but The Sun soon attracted criticism for lacking substance in its journalism. News UK, owned by Rupert Murdoch, purchased the struggling newspaper in 1969 and subsequently transformed it into a tabloid format.
The expansion of mass media provided audiences with greater choice in their consumption of information and entertainment. This proliferation of media outlets and formats contributed to the evolving attitudes and cultural shifts characteristic of the sixties, giving ordinary people access to diverse viewpoints and challenging traditional authority through satire.
Growth in leisure activities
Home-based pursuits
The growth of mass media complemented an increase in leisure activities during the 1960s. Post-war economic prosperity and the availability of specialised magazines and television programmes sustained interest in do-it-yourself (DIY), which remained a popular pastime for men managing household maintenance and improvements. As home ownership increased, so did engagement with hobbies such as DIY.
Gardening represented perhaps the most popular leisure activity of the decade, supported by television programmes including Gardeners' World and its predecessor Gardening Club. These shows provided practical advice and inspiration for home gardeners. Technological innovation influenced leisure activities - the Flymo hover mower utilised hovercraft technology to revolutionise lawn maintenance, making gardening more efficient and accessible.
Changing holiday patterns
Holiday destinations underwent substantial transformation during the 1960s. Traditional seaside resorts such as Blackpool and Butlin's Holiday Camps began losing popularity as alternatives emerged. Caravanning gained traction as a holiday option, with the Caravan Club experiencing a doubling of its membership during the decade. Independent travellers experimented with visiting new locations within Britain, such as Devon and Cornwall, reflecting a growing spirit of adventure.
Pragmatic considerations also influenced holiday choices. At Blackpool, for instance, raw sewage being washed onto the beach by tides created hygiene concerns. At Butlin's and Pontin's Holiday Camps, conflicts arose between visiting teenagers and more traditional families over differing moral outlooks, highlighting generational tensions.
The most substantial challenge to traditional British seaside holidays came from package holidays abroad. Spain emerged as Europe's premier holiday destination during this period. While holidaying abroad remained less popular than it would become later (between 1966 and 1971, total holidays abroad rose from 4% to 8.4% of all holidays), the trend moved steadily upwards.
Leisure habits evolved as people became more adventurous or acquired greater disposable income. Technological changes and increased media representation altered how people approached their traditional pursuits of DIY and gardening, while holiday destinations shifted in response to new opportunities and expectations.
The impact of scientific developments
Technological innovations in daily life
Scientific progress during the 1960s reflected themes explored in contemporary popular culture. The film 2001: A Space Odyssey (released in 1964) depicted the spacecraft Discovery's crew contending with HAL 9000, a sentient computer in complete control of the vessel. While not reality, this narrative suggested that by 1964 observers could anticipate such developments emerging from ongoing scientific advances. From Dr Who to James Bond, science and technological gadgets pervaded popular entertainment.
Scientific developments affected numerous areas of daily life, from domestic settings to medical facilities. Gardens benefited from hovercraft technology applied to lawnmowers. Advances in photography, chemical engineering and transistor radio technology contributed to modern medicine through improved X-ray equipment, sulphonamides (antibacterial drugs) and hearing aids.
Not all scientific developments produced immediately life-changing effects. However, one particularly useful innovation was polythene. Developed to insulate electrical equipment, polythene could wrap or contain food products. Another synthetic plastic, PVC (polyvinyl chloride), could be manufactured in non-rigid forms suitable for clothing.
Plastic jewellery, miniskirts, handbags, boots, raincoats and furniture in bright, bold colours became fashionable items, demonstrating how scientific innovation influenced both practical applications and cultural trends.
Computer recognition and government investment
The 1960s witnessed growing recognition of computers' potential role in business operations, even though their manufacture and development remained insufficient. The government increased expenditure on non-military scientific research during this period. Although Britain could not match American spending levels, it surpassed its European competitors in ensuring that science and scientists played a substantial role in modern British society.
The reduction in censorship
Publishing reforms
The movement towards a more permissive society had already commenced in 1960 when Penguin Books successfully published Lady Chatterley's Lover for the first time, overcoming legal challenges. The Theatres Act 1968 delivered another blow to traditional censorship structures.
Theatre censorship and reform
The role of approving theatrical performances had traditionally belonged to the Lord Chamberlain, though by the 1960s this official was more likely to organise overseas royal visits than serve as the nation's moral guardian. The incumbent during the sixties was Lord Cobbold, formerly Governor of the Bank of England, who was relieved to see his censorship duties end.
Edward Bond's play Saved provided the catalyst for challenging existing censorship laws. This gritty drama, set in 1960s London, centred on a couple who fell in and out of love rapidly, along with their associated friends and family. The play portrayed the harsh reality of life among unemployed young people and the frustration the characters experienced with their circumstances.
The leading female character, Pam, becomes pregnant but remains unmarried - her baby suffers near-fatal abuse from the father and his friends. The play could not be performed without substantial cuts, and when shown to large private audiences, the Lord Chamberlain successfully prosecuted the producers.
This prosecution, however, provided the impetus for backbench Labour MP George Strauss to launch a Private Member's Bill (PMB) which encountered minimal opposition. A committee report already favoured abolishing theatre censorship to assist the Prime Minister on his reform agenda. Roy Jenkins served as Home Secretary at the bill's commencement, though not at its conclusion, and received credit from the Lord Chamberlain for its successful passage.
The Theatres Act 1968 exemplified the liberal reforms characterising the sixties. While some theatrical productions, such as Hair, took advantage of relaxed censorship restrictions, there was no widespread call to repeal the legislation. This demonstrated that the public was ready for greater artistic freedom without descending into moral chaos, as some critics had feared.
Progress towards female equality
Women's changing roles and expectations
When Labour assumed power in 1964, women's roles had changed little over recent decades. Modern electrical appliances - shiny white goods in kitchens, vacuum cleaners for floor cleaning - reduced the physical labour of washing clothes and household maintenance. However, for many women, this did not fundamentally alter their circumstances.
Some women accepted being characterised as 'kitchen goddesses' and found fulfilment in the homemaker, wife and mother roles. For numerous others, the monotony of housework and limited prospects for women prompted desire for change.
The contraceptive pill
The introduction of the female contraceptive pill in 1961 can be interpreted as advancing equality regarding sexual autonomy. Initially the pill was prescribed only to married women, but became available to single women in 1967.
A survey conducted by Geoffrey Gorer in 1969 emphasised the importance of being able to engage in sexual relations without fear of pregnancy for both married and single women. The pill granted women control over their fertility and enabled them to pursue careers and achieve financial independence. However, without the threat of pregnancy, men sometimes found it easier to pressure women into sexual activity.
The Dagenham strike and equal pay campaign
Barbara Castle's involvement in resolving the Ford women's strike at Dagenham convinced her of the necessity for action towards equal pay for women. Female workers at the Dagenham plant received 85% of male wages, whereas at other Ford plants women received 92%.
The Dagenham Strike Resolution:
The issue centred on the government's prices and incomes policy, which would not permit wage increases even if employers agreed. To address this obstacle:
- Ford claimed they had reassessed the economic value of women's work
- Downing Street approved the pay rise despite Conservative opposition
- This set an important precedent for equal pay claims across other industries
The resolution demonstrated how political intervention could overcome institutional barriers to women's equality.
Castle now held firm views on equal pay. The 1964 Labour Party Manifesto had called for a charter of rights for all employees, including 'the right to equal pay for equal work'. The Trades Unions Congress passed a resolution in 1965 supporting equal pay for equal work. Momentum was building towards equality for women.
In a final achievement before the 1970 general election, Castle managed to incorporate proposals for equal pay into a Prices and Incomes Bill. She persuaded Jenkins to allow her to develop proposals to implement equal pay gradually.
| Aspect | Before 1960s | During 1960s | Significance |
|---|---|---|---|
| Contraceptive pill | Not available | 1961 (married women), 1967 (single women) | Gave women control over fertility and career choices |
| Equal pay campaigns | Limited organised action | 1964 Manifesto, 1965 TUC resolution, Dagenham strike | Built momentum towards equal pay legislation |
| Women's wages at Ford Dagenham | Below male rates | 85% of men's wages (raised after strike) | Highlighted gender pay inequality |
Key Points to Remember:
- Television ownership reached approximately 90% of homes by the 1960s, with BBC2 launching in 1964 and colour television introduced from 1967
- Leisure patterns shifted from traditional seaside holidays to package tours abroad (Spain became Europe's top destination), while DIY and gardening remained popular home-based activities
- Scientific developments, including polythene, PVC and hovercraft technology, affected daily life, while government increased spending on non-military scientific research
- The Theatres Act 1968 ended the Lord Chamberlain's role in theatre censorship, following the controversy over Edward Bond's play Saved and building on the 1960 publication of Lady Chatterley's Lover
- The contraceptive pill (1961) and the Dagenham strike led by Barbara Castle advanced women's equality, with equal pay proposals incorporated into the Prices and Incomes Bill before the 1970 election