Characteristics of Depression (AQA A-Level Psychology): Revision Notes
Characteristics of Depression
Overview and definition
Depression is an affective mood disorder characterised by persistent feelings of sadness, hopelessness, and despondency that significantly interfere with daily functioning. It represents one of the most common mental health conditions, affecting approximately 20% of the population at some point in their lives.
Depression affects women nearly twice as often as men, with females being particularly vulnerable during mid to late adolescence - a period often marked by body dissatisfaction, low self-esteem, and challenges in achieving independence.
The disorder typically occurs in cycles, with symptoms appearing and disappearing over time. Episodes generally last between two to six months, though without proper treatment, depression can become chronic and severely impact quality of life. The condition can emerge at any time from adolescence onwards, though the average age of onset has been decreasing over recent decades as recognition and diagnosis have improved.
Types of depression
Depression is primarily classified into two main types based on the presence or absence of manic episodes.
Unipolar depression
Unipolar depression (also called major depression) involves depressive episodes without any periods of mania. This is the more common form, affecting up to 25% of women and 12% of men at some point in their lives.
Unipolar depression is characterised by sustained periods of low mood, typically occurring in distinct episodes. The condition can range from mild to severe, with more severe cases sometimes involving delusions and requiring more intensive treatment.
These individuals generally experience more social impairment and may have episodes that occur more frequently over time.
Bipolar depression
Bipolar depression (also known as manic depression) is less common, affecting approximately 2% of the population equally across both sexes. This condition typically emerges in a person's twenties and before age 50.
Unlike unipolar depression, bipolar depression involves alternating periods of depression and mania. The depressive episodes in bipolar disorder include all the symptoms seen in unipolar depression, but are interspersed with manic episodes characterised by extremely elevated mood, increased energy, and often reckless behaviour.
Mixed episodes, where symptoms of both mania and depression occur simultaneously, are more common than purely manic episodes.
Symptoms and characteristics
Depression symptoms are typically organised into three main categories: behavioural, emotional, and cognitive characteristics. For a diagnosis of major depression, at least five symptoms must be present every day for a minimum of two weeks.
Behavioural characteristics
Loss of energy is one of the most noticeable behavioural signs. Individuals with depression often experience profound fatigue and lethargy, leading to significantly reduced activity levels and difficulty completing even basic daily tasks.
Social impairment manifests as reduced social interaction with friends and family members. Depressed individuals often withdraw from social situations and may isolate themselves from their support networks.
Additional Behavioural Signs:
- Weight changes are common, with significant decreases or increases in weight often accompanying depression
- Poor personal hygiene may become apparent as individuals struggle to maintain basic self-care routines
- Sleep pattern disturbances frequently occur, with either constant insomnia or hypersomnia
In bipolar depression, additional behavioural symptoms during manic episodes include high energy levels leading to boundless energy and increased work output or sexual activity, reckless behaviour involving dangerous actions and risk-taking, and being extremely talkative with rapid, endless speech.
Emotional characteristics
Loss of enthusiasm represents a key emotional symptom, where individuals experience markedly diminished interest or pleasure in daily activities that they previously enjoyed.
Constant depressed mood involves persistent and overwhelming feelings of sadness and hopelessness that dominate the person's emotional state throughout most days.
Worthlessness encompasses persistent feelings of reduced self-worth and inappropriate feelings of guilt, even when these feelings are not justified by circumstances.
During manic episodes in bipolar depression, individuals may experience contrasting emotional states including elevated mood with constant euphoria, irritability when frustrated, and a lack of guilt characterised by social disinhibition.
Cognitive characteristics
Delusions may occur in some cases, typically involving themes of guilt, punishment, personal inadequacy, or disease. Some individuals may also experience hallucinations affecting any of the five senses (auditory, visual, olfactory, or tactile).
Reduced concentration manifests as significant difficulty maintaining attention, slowed thinking processes, and increased indecisiveness in daily situations.
Critical Cognitive Symptoms:
- Thoughts of death represent serious cognitive symptoms where individuals experience persistent thoughts about death and suicide, which require immediate professional attention
- Poor memory affects the ability to retrieve and recall information, making it difficult to remember both recent and past events
In bipolar depression, manic episodes may include delusional thinking where individuals develop grandiose beliefs about themselves or believe others are persecuting them, and irrational thought processes characterised by reckless and illogical thinking patterns that affect decision-making.
Diagnostic criteria and prevalence
For a clinical diagnosis of depression, at least five symptoms must be present consistently every day for a minimum of two weeks. These symptoms must cause significant impairment in general functioning that cannot be attributed to other medical conditions or life events (such as bereavement).
Key Diagnostic Distinctions: A distinction exists between major depression and dysthymic depression (chronic depression). Dysthymic depression involves experiencing three or more symptoms for longer than two months, rather than the five symptoms required for major depression, but represents a less severe though more persistent form of the condition.
Depression can be further classified as endogenous (related to internal biochemical and hormonal factors) or exogenous (related to stressful external experiences), though many individuals experience elements of both types.
Key Points to Remember:
- Depression is an affective mood disorder affecting 20% of the population, with women being twice as vulnerable as men
- Unipolar depression involves depressive episodes only, while bipolar depression includes alternating periods of depression and mania
- Depression symptoms fall into three categories: behavioural (energy, social interaction, weight, hygiene, sleep), emotional (mood, enthusiasm, worthlessness), and cognitive (delusions, concentration, death thoughts, memory)
- Diagnosis requires at least five symptoms present daily for two weeks with significant functional impairment
- Bipolar depression includes additional manic symptoms such as elevated mood, high energy, reckless behaviour, and grandiose thinking