Christian Views on Different Issues (AQA A-Level Religious Studies): Revision Notes
Christian views on different issues
Comparing Hampson and Ruether
When examining Christianity's approach to gender and sexuality, two key theologians offer contrasting perspectives:
Daphne Hampson's view:
- Christianity's patriarchal history is central and unchangeable
- Christian claims cannot possibly be true given this sexist foundation
- Christianity is inevitably sexist
- Both men and women need to find new ways of understanding God beyond Christianity
Rosemary Radford Ruether's view:
- Female thinking exists within the New Testament and Christian theology
- It is possible to remain Christian whilst expressing women's aspirations today
- Christians can be inspired by the Holy Spirit and Jesus' example
- Christianity can be reformed from within
These two positions represent a fundamental choice: either abandon Christianity as irredeemably sexist (Hampson) or work to reform it from within (Ruether). This debate continues to shape contemporary Christian theology on gender issues.
Celibacy
Definition and meaning
Celibacy is living life without sexual activity. In Christian tradition, celibacy means more than simply abstaining from sex - it is choosing to live as a single person to devote oneself completely to God. Christianity traditionally teaches that marriage is a sexual, social and emotional union, making celibacy and marriage closely related concepts.
Historical development
Early Christian period:
- Very early Christians believed the world would end soon
- Paul wrote that marriage was a concession to human weakness: "it is better to marry than to burn with passion" (1 Corinthians 7:9)
- This implied celibacy was preferable to marriage
- Matthew 19:12 records Jesus teaching about those who "choose to live like eunuchs for the sake of the kingdom of heaven"
Later development:
As time passed without the world ending, the Early Church accepted that life would continue. Most Christians, particularly leaders, were expected to marry as being married showed moral responsibility. From the fourth century onwards, a monastic tradition developed celebrating total devotion to God through celibacy.
Negative views of sexuality:
With increasingly negative views of sexuality and women's place, celibacy grew in importance. For many women, convent life provided intellectual freedom from male domination and domestic duties - offering opportunities for education and scholarship unavailable to married women.
Current practice
Roman Catholic Church:
- All ordained ministers (except permanent deacons) must be celibate
- The Catechism states that clergy "give themselves entirely to God and to men"
- Celibacy is seen as "a sign of this new life" and "radiantly proclaims the Reign of God"
- Pressure exists to end mandatory celibacy due to priest shortages
- In 2017, the Pope suggested considering ordaining married men in remote communities
Orthodox Churches:
Priests may be married when ordained but cannot marry after ordination. Bishops must be celibate, so are chosen from celibate priests. Some Orthodox Churches united with Rome maintain these traditions.
Church of England:
- Allowed married Anglican priests to join the Roman Catholic priesthood as a special concession after women's ordination was permitted
Protestant Evangelical Churches:
- Many prefer clergy to be married with families
- Follow advice in 1 Timothy 3:1-7 that church leaders should be "husband of one wife" with orderly family life
- View celibate men as failing biblical requirements for leadership
Key questions
- Does promoting celibacy undermine the value of sexuality?
- Is promoting celibate life unnatural given humans naturally procreate?
Marriage
Historical development
Early Church period:
- Only two acceptable life options: celibacy or marriage
- Initially, marriage was a concession for those who could not remain celibate (1 Corinthians 7:9)
- By the time of Timothy's letter, being married showed fitness to lead a Christian congregation
Marriage as sacrament:
Within the Church, marriage became a special means of receiving God's grace. Promoting family life showed links with Jewish communities and contrasted with more liberal Graeco-Roman views of sexuality. In Catholic tradition, marriage remained a sacrament but was seen as inferior to celibate life.
The Reformation:
- Balance shifted in favour of marriage over celibacy
- Family seen as God's blessing upon husband and wife
- For Protestant reformers, marriage was not a sacrament but a "worldly thing" (Luther)
Catholic teaching on marriage
Marriage in Catholic tradition has several distinctive features:
- Marriage is sacramental - a physical act causing profound change to souls
- Two individuals become "one flesh", making divorce impossible
- Unhappy couples may live apart but cannot remarry
- Divorcees who remarry are excluded from Holy Communion as they are living in sin
Annulment - A crucial distinction:
In certain circumstances, a marriage may be declared never to have happened (e.g., if one partner never intended to have children). This is fundamentally different from divorce - annulment states there was no valid marriage to begin with. People whose marriage has been annulled may remarry in the Catholic Church.
Protestant teaching on marriage
- Marriage is not generally viewed as a sacrament
- Marriage can be dissolved, though this shows failure to live up to God's standards
- Jesus appears to allow divorce only for marital unfaithfulness (Matthew 5:32)
- Many Protestant Churches allow remarriage of divorcees in church if they have admitted failure and intend to honour their marriage commitment
Modern challenges
Changing views of marriage:
- Marriage is often seen primarily as a relationship offering satisfaction to partners rather than as a sacrament to establish family
- Legal registration of marriage no longer requires religious ceremony, raising questions about what constitutes "full" Christian marriage
- Christian marriage ceremonies state commitment is for life, creating problems for divorcees who wish to remain active in church
- What about Christians in same-sex marriages who adopt or bring children into the home?
The dilemma:
Should the Church emphasise Jesus' loving example and accept those in second or same-sex marriages? Or should the Church stick to traditional views?
Same-sex marriage:
- Those who see homosexuality as acceptable generally support same-sex marriage
- Those who believe homosexuality is sinful consider same-sex marriage invalid
- Legal in some countries including Great Britain and Republic of Ireland
- Most Churches do not permit ceremonies in churches or places of worship
- Exceptions: Quakers, Lutherans, and Scottish Episcopal Church
Homosexuality
Background
Historical shift:
Over the last 300 years, religion moved from public to private sphere. The Protestant Reformation promoted individual relationship with God, making religion and lifestyle matters of personal choice. This shift is particularly relevant to homosexuality and transgender issues.
UK legal and social change:
- Until the end of the 1950s, all Christian denominations regarded homosexuality as sin
- Homosexual acts were illegal, often clandestine and squalid
- Wolfenden Report (1957) suggested decriminalising homosexual acts between consenting adults in private
- Sexual Offences Act (1967) made this law in England and Wales
Contemporary responses
As homosexuality became legal and socially acceptable in much of society, Churches faced questions about how to respond.
Catholic tradition approach:
The Catholic Church makes a distinction between "tendencies" and "acts":
- Someone may experience themselves as gay but choose not to engage in same-sex sexual activity
- Homosexual tendencies are not sinful in themselves
- Homosexual acts go against Natural Moral Law and are regarded as sins
- The Catholic Church sees conception of children as the final aim of sexual acts
- Any sexual expression that cannot lead to conception is condemned (including contraception and masturbation)
Celibacy requirement:
Some argue people with homosexual tendencies should remain celibate. This attempts to balance valuing and caring for homosexuals with traditional views. Similarly, transgender people should learn to live with divided gender sense rather than seek hormonal or surgical change.
Fundamental question:
Should Christianity remain fixed in moral principles to be true to its origins? Or should it develop moral principles understanding Jesus as one who accepted and valued the socially disenfranchised?
Reinterpreting tradition
The challenge of biblical interpretation
The problem faced by homosexuals within Christian Churches stems from biblical texts that appear to condemn homosexual activity. The key question is whether to:
- Start with Jesus' attitude towards others and evaluate biblical texts on that basis
- Try to understand biblical texts in their original context without interpretation
People inevitably bring their own assumptions and experiences when interpreting texts, influenced by their society and personal experiences. This makes "objective" interpretation challenging.
Old Testament passages
Creation story (Genesis 1:27):
God created humankind "in the image of God". Some interpret this as affirmation that God made homosexual, bisexual and transgender people as they are. They should be fully accepted by those made differently.
Leviticus 18:22:
Do not have sexual relations with a man as one does with a woman; that is detestable.
Leviticus 20:13:
If a man has sexual relations with a man as one does with a woman, both of them have done what is detestable. They are to be put to death; their blood will be on their own heads.
Both verses are part of a list of prohibited sexual arrangements including incest, adultery, and sex during menstruation. Capital punishment was also prescribed for other sexual sins including adultery and incest - raising questions about selective application of these laws today.
Genesis 19: Sodom and Gomorrah:
The story involves:
- Lot welcoming two angels as guests
- Men of Sodom demanding to "have sex with them"
- Lot offering his daughters instead
- Angels causing the men to go blind
- God destroying the city
- Lot's wife turning to salt for looking back
- Lot's daughters getting their father drunk to have sex with him and continue the family line
Interpretations:
- Not straightforward to use this passage to condemn specific sexual acts between men
- No homosexual act is actually described - only threatened
- The passage could illustrate gender violence (Lot offering daughters to crowd)
- Prophet Ezekiel says Sodom's sins were "pride, gluttony, and laziness" - no focus on sexual sin
- The destruction may have been for threatened violence and inhospitality rather than homosexual acts
New Testament passages
1 Corinthians 6:9-10:
Do not be deceived: Neither the sexually immoral nor idolaters nor adulterers nor men who have sex with men nor thieves nor the greedy nor drunkards nor slanderers nor swindlers will inherit the kingdom of God.
Key interpretive issues:
- Almost everyone finds themselves on such a list to some degree
- All are equally in need of forgiveness
- Dispute among scholars about exact meaning of Greek terms
- Unclear whether it refers to male prostitutes or homosexual men generally
Romans 1:26-28:
Paul describes how people rejected God and practised idolatry, then states:
Because of this, God gave them over to shameful lusts. Even their women exchanged natural relations for unnatural ones. In the same way the men also abandoned natural relations with women and were inflamed with lust for one another. Men committed indecent acts with other men, and received in themselves the due penalty for their perversion.
The passage continues listing gossips, slanderers, the ruthless, and those who disobey parents - all deserving death. However, the next chapter opens with:
You, therefore, have no excuse, you who pass judgment on someone else, for at whatever point you judge another, you are condemning yourself, because you who pass judgment do the same things.
Key points:
- Paul emphasises Christians should not judge others
- All deserve condemnation and all can receive forgiveness
- Such passages regard heterosexual relationships and family life as the norm
- Homosexual acts are included in lists implicating almost everyone
- The key feature is not to judge others, as all deserve condemnation and can receive forgiveness
- This is not the same as claiming equality of sexual preference
Church responses summary
The Lesbian and Gay Christian Movement was formed in UK in 1961 following legalisation. A key theme has been recognising and celebrating diversity and difference.
- LGBT community has interpreted some texts positively (David and Jonathan's relationship, Ruth and Naomi, Song of Songs)
- Other texts create problems if taken at face value
Transgender issues
Biblical silence
The Bible has nothing specific to say about transgender people:
- Sex-change surgery was not available in biblical times
- In first-century Palestine's small traditional communities, it would have been impossible for someone to live as the opposite gender
- The Bible neither condemns nor supports transgender living
Arguments against allowing change of gender
God's creation:
If God created all people and does not make mistakes, transgender people should be content with the gender God gave them.
Early Church opposition:
The Church strongly opposed surgery tampering with sex identity. Eunuchs (castrated men) were not permitted to be ordained as priests. Church historian Eusebius reports that theologian Origen was castrated (either self-inflicted or by enemies), and his ordination was declared invalid as a result.
Application of homosexuality passages:
Those who believe changing gender is wrong argue that passages relating to homosexuality also apply to transgender people. A surgical gender transition cannot change the sexual nature a person is born with. If a transgender female sleeps with a man, it is viewed the same as two men engaging in homosexual acts, and therefore condemned.
Arguments in favour of allowing change of gender
Creation in God's image:
Genesis 1:27 states God created humankind "in the image of God...male and female, he created them". This can be interpreted to mean God's nature contains both male and female. By extension, all humankind created in God's image contains both. Changing gender is merely emphasising one aspect of God's image over another.
Gender equality in Christ:
Galatians 3:28: "There is neither Jew nor Gentile, neither slave nor free, nor is there male and female, for you are all one in Christ Jesus". Paul suggests gender identity has no importance for Christians. If so, changing gender is of no significance in terms of salvation.
God's creation of the whole person:
A transgender person could claim God created them as a whole - including the nature of one gender and body of another. This gives them responsibility to choose how to live their life.
Gospel of Thomas (apocryphal):
Contains a passage that appears to encourage gender change. However, it is problematic for gender equality as it suggests only men can enter the kingdom of Heaven. It is not part of the canonical Bible.
Key questions for interpretation:
- Do biblical views reflect the moral and social situation of a particular time and place, or do they apply to everyone for all time?
- If they reflect a particular time and place, who determines appropriate interpretation today?
- If they apply to everyone for all time, how should the Church treat LGBT people?
Church of England: a pragmatic approach to ordination
Historical approach
For many years, the Church of England acknowledged that many ordained priests were homosexual. This was acceptable if:
- Homosexual activity was within stable relationships
- It did not interfere with pastoral ministry
- Qualities displayed by male homosexuals (sensitivity, acceptance of people in need) made them particularly good pastors
This was a pragmatic approach that avoided explicit policies.
Challenges with open ordination
The situation became more problematic with ordination of openly gay or lesbian individuals:
- Decision needed about expectations for such ordinands
- General view: gay or lesbian candidates could be ordained but must remain celibate
- Homosexual Christians argue this goes against their personal integrity
Anglican Communion tensions
US developments:
- First openly gay priest consecrated bishop: Gene Robinson (Bishop of New Hampshire, 2004)
- First lesbian woman consecrated bishop: Mary Glasspool (suffragan bishop, Diocese of Los Angeles, 2010)
Global variations:
Some Churches in Anglican Communion (including Anglican Church of Australia, most African and Eastern Anglican Churches) continue to forbid ordination of homosexuals. The issue threatens to split the Anglican Communion.
Current Church of England position
General principle:
Openly homosexual people may be ordained provided they:
- Are and intend to remain within stable relationship
- May acknowledge homosexual feelings but must not engage in homosexual sexual acts
Specific policies:
- 2005: General Synod agreed people in same-sex civil partnerships could be ordained to priesthood provided they remain celibate
- 2013: Extended to bishops
Key questions:
- Does this restriction go against the personal integrity of someone in a loving homosexual relationship seeking ordination?
- Is it reasonable for the Church to require a couple in a legal committed relationship not to engage in sexual activity?
Exam tips
When answering exam questions on these topics:
- When discussing biblical interpretations, show awareness of different approaches (literal vs contextual)
- Understand the distinction between "tendencies" and "acts" in Catholic teaching
- Be clear about differences between Catholic and Protestant views on marriage and divorce
- Know key biblical passages and their interpretations (Leviticus 18:22, Romans 1:26-28, 1 Corinthians 6:9-10, Galatians 3:28)
- Consider both traditional and reformist Christian perspectives on these issues
- Remember that Church of England's approach represents a middle way attempting to balance different views
Remember!
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Hampson vs Ruether: Fundamental choice between viewing Christianity as irredeemably sexist or capable of reform from within
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Celibacy: Historically valued in Christianity, now practised by Catholic clergy and in monastic traditions; Protestant Churches often prefer married clergy
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Marriage: Catholics view it as an indissoluble sacrament; Protestants see it as dissolvable though divorce shows failure to meet God's standards
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Homosexuality: Biblical texts appear to condemn it, but interpretation is contested; key question is whether to prioritise Jesus' inclusive example or traditional moral teachings
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Transgender issues: Bible is silent; arguments centre on whether God's creation should be accepted as given or whether God created people with freedom to choose
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Church of England: Pragmatic approach allowing ordination of gay and lesbian people provided they remain celibate in same-sex relationships