Migration and Multicultural Societies (AQA A-Level Religious Studies): Revision Notes
Migration and Multicultural Societies
Introduction: The relative and the absolute
Understanding different attitudes towards religious claims is essential when studying multicultural societies. There are two main philosophical positions:
Absolutist position
- Insists there is a right view and a wrong view that are mutually exclusive
- Holds beliefs with complete certainty, without qualification
- Cannot be maintained 'most of the time' – you either believe something absolutely or you don't
- For example, saying 'it is always wrong to steal, sometimes' is self-contradictory
The absolutist position cannot be held partially – it requires complete certainty. This creates a logical impossibility when trying to maintain absolutism "most of the time" because the very nature of absolute belief means it cannot be qualified or conditional.
Relativist position
- Argues that the rightness or wrongness of a view depends on one's perspective
- Suggests truth is relative to cultural and historical context
- More flexible in accommodating different viewpoints
Religious claims and certainty
Religions have historically made absolute claims about truth. This has led to significant consequences:
Throughout history, people have been expelled, tortured, or killed for holding 'wrong' beliefs. The historical justification was that brief torture was seen as preferable to eternal damnation, so it was considered merciful to force people back to 'correct' belief.
This creates an 'us versus them' mentality between different religious groups. The more convinced someone is of their beliefs, the more likely they are to be intolerant of opposing views.
The challenge of religious diversity
In a world with many competing religions, each claiming to know the truth, several questions arise:
- Can all religions be right simultaneously?
- Are their claims mutually destructive?
- What degree of respect and cooperation is possible between different religions?
Most religions acknowledge limits to human knowledge. Some accept that others may understand aspects of truth different from their own but potentially compatible with it. The key issue becomes not incompatibility but the degree of respect and cooperation possible between different religions. This is facilitated by understanding each religion's beliefs as reflecting its own historical and cultural background – the essence of multiculturalism.
How migration has created multicultural societies
Historical context
Until the 18th century, Judaism was the only non-Christian religion most Europeans encountered peacefully. Knowledge of Islam existed in southern Europe but was heavily influenced by the Crusades. By the 18th century, Europeans learned more about world religions, but religious diversity only became an immediate issue in the 20th century following large-scale immigration.
Immigration to Britain in the 20th century
Key term: Migration – The movement of substantial numbers of people from one place to another.
Major waves of immigration to Britain included:
- Post-1945: Eastern Europeans fleeing Soviet control
- 1947 onwards: Indians and Pakistanis following Indian independence, peaking in 1972 when expelled from Uganda by Idi Amin
- 1950s: Caribbean and Hong Kong immigrants encouraged by the British government to address labour shortages
- 1980s: Somali refugees fleeing civil war
- 1990s: Refugees from Balkan conflicts
The development of multiculturalism
Key term: Multicultural – Made up of many different cultures, which may include different nationalities, beliefs, values and social customs. This term has a wider scope than multiracial (which refers only to race) and multi-faith (which applies only to religion).
Initially, many assumed immigrants would fully assimilate into British culture by adopting British language, customs, dress and religion. However, as immigrant groups became established, many retained their own cultural identity. By the 1960s and 1970s, there was growing recognition of the need to respect minority group identities.
By the 1980s, multiculturalism was generally recognised as a feature of British society.
Debates about multiculturalism
Opposition to multiculturalism:
- Some viewed it as threatening core national values and traditions
- Critics argued Britain was a Christian country with values rooted in Christian belief, teaching and practices
- The influx of Hindus, Buddhists, Muslims and Sikhs made multiculturalism more visible
- Many Christian immigrants (notably from the Caribbean) also had cultures different from 1940s-1950s Britain
Support for multiculturalism:
- Each group's culture should be respected and protected
- Could lead to rich and beneficial mixing of cultural traditions
- Seen as promoting tolerance and equal opportunities in employment, education, law and business
The diversity of faiths in Britain today
2011 Census data
The religious landscape of Britain shows significant diversity:
- Christianity: 59.3% (down from 71.8% in 2001)
- No religion: 25.1% (up 10.3% from 2001)
- Islam: 4.8% (up 1.8% since 2001)
- Hinduism: 1.5%
- Sikhism: 0.8%
- Judaism: 0.5%
- Buddhism: 0.4%
- Other religions (including Agnostic and Humanist): under 0.1%
All minority religious groups increased their membership between 2001 and 2011. However, the biggest change was the fall in Christian numbers and rise in those claiming no religion – a change not significantly affected by immigration.
Impact of immigration on religious diversity
In 2011, 11% of Christians and 53% of Muslims were born outside the UK. This demonstrates that while immigration has contributed to religious diversity, the most significant shift has been the decline in Christianity and rise in secularism among the British-born population.
Geographic distribution
Religious diversity is more obvious in some areas than others:
- Early immigrants often settled close to one another
- Industrial cities with mixed populations attracted higher numbers from specific regions
- This allowed communities to build places of worship, open culturally specific shops, and maintain cultural roots
Example: Manchester's Chinatown
Manchester's Chinatown was originally established by early 20th-century Chinese laundry workers. The community expanded significantly with immigration from Hong Kong in the 1950s and 1960s. This concentration allowed the community to maintain cultural connections, establish businesses, and create a distinct cultural district that remains vibrant today.
Freedom of religion as a human right in European law
Universal Declaration of Human Rights, Article 18
"Everyone has the right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion; this right includes freedom to change his religion or belief, and freedom, either alone or in community with other and in public or private, to manifest his religion or belief in teaching, practice, worship and observance."
The UN Human Rights Committee clarified that Article 18 protects 'theistic, non-theistic and atheistic beliefs, as well as the right not to profess any religion or belief'.
European law
Article 18 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights is confirmed and included in the European Convention on Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms, Article 9.
British law
The United Kingdom is a signatory to the European Convention on Human Rights. Article 9 (freedom of thought, conscience and religion) has been incorporated into the Human Rights Act 1998.
Legal implications of religious freedom in the UK:
- It is against the law to prohibit or restrict the practice of religion
- This allows religious pluralism within British society
- However, it is also illegal to incite violence or racial hatred
- If a religion preaches hatred towards others, claiming freedom of religion is not a defence
This means religious freedom has limits when it conflicts with other protected rights or public safety.
Key term: Religious pluralism – A situation where people of many faiths live in the same society without conflict, respecting one another's views. In some contexts, the term can also refer to the view that all religions are equally valid.
Historical context of religious intolerance
Religions have historically been intolerant towards:
- One another (e.g., European wars between Catholics and Protestants)
- Sub-groups within a single religion (e.g., Sunni and Shi'a Muslims)
Some Old Testament passages suggest religious intolerance was a duty. For example, Exodus 23:23-24 and 32-33 command destroying other peoples and their gods. This historical context helps explain why modern religious pluralism represents such a significant departure from traditional religious attitudes.
Religious pluralism as a feature of modern secular states
Key term: Secular state – A country where the government, legislature and society are not controlled by, or dependent on, the teachings of a religion.
Understanding multiculturalism
A multi-faith society inevitably contains people from different cultures living together. In modern Western nations, this can develop into multiculturalism – the view that:
- All cultures should be respected, celebrated and understood in terms of their origins
- There should be mutual engagement and dialogue
- Society is richer for having cultural diversity
- No culture should have another culture imposed on it
- People should not be deprived of expressing their cultural heritage
Critiques of multiculturalism
Concerns about social cohesion:
Critics argue that multiculturalism leaves little scope for holding society together. Without an agreed scheme of thought that everyone accepts, society may lack cohesion with nothing to bind it together. Immigrant communities may become isolated without assimilation, and this isolation can lead to discrimination.
Religious tensions:
Multiculturalism assumes no single culture can claim superiority. However, religion is based on the conviction that it offers the best form of life. This creates a fundamental tension: multiculturalism encourages not claiming superiority, but religious conviction encourages the opposite.
The overlap between multiculturalism and religious pluralism
Religious pluralism is the religious equivalent of multiculturalism. It assumes that:
- All religions should be respected, celebrated and understood as having intrinsic value
- Several religions can exist alongside one another peacefully
There is considerable overlap between multiculturalism and religious pluralism:
- Many religions are associated with specific cultural communities
- It is sometimes impossible to separate cultural from religious traditions
- Some religions span very different cultures (e.g., Polish Catholics and Caribbean Pentecostals)
- Some similar cultures include different religions (e.g., Manchester's Chinatown includes Christians, Buddhists and followers of Chinese traditional religion)
Issues of multiculturalism
Two controversial issues in the UK illustrate tensions between multiculturalism and universal rights:
Female genital mutilation (FGM) and forced marriage are both illegal in UK law because:
- FGM causes unacceptable suffering
- Forced marriage contradicts British values of free choice
The debate:
- Some argue these are cultural expressions within specific religious communities
- They claim decisions should belong to religious communities, not secular law
- However, both are largely cultural rather than religious practices
- They contradict the religious teachings of all mainstream religions
- UK law limits freedom of religious expression when it causes harm or breaks other laws
Exam tip: Be able to distinguish between cultural and religious practices, and understand how freedom of religious expression has limits in law.
Influence on Christian thought
Cultural sharing vs religious beliefs
In terms of cultural expressions (food, dress, family traditions, some religious practices), it is relatively simple to participate in multicultural society:
- Christians may share Diwali fireworks with Hindu neighbours
- Eat Passover Seder with Jewish friends
- Welcome people of all faiths to Christmas parties and Easter egg hunts
This gives people a sense of belonging to a world community rather than only a local one.
However, sharing religious beliefs is more complex. Christians living alongside people of other faiths must examine their own faith and their attitude towards others' faith to have a responsible attitude.
Using reason to judge religious claims
One approach is to use human reason to judge between religious claims:
When Religion 1 claims X and Religion 2 claims Y:
- Either use reason to decide which is more 'reasonable'
- Or use reason to decide which is more inclusive, with one belief being a subset of the other
The problem: This assumes religious people will accept that reason can judge their beliefs. Many religious believers may not accept this assumption, as they view religious truth as coming from revelation or experience rather than rational analysis.
Historical attempts to subject religion to reason
Religious claims have been subjected to reason throughout history:
- Aquinas' Natural Moral Law presents Christianity as wholly reasonable
- This reasoning can lead to beliefs (including belief in God) becoming optional expressions of human life's value
- Buddhism traditionally holds this position: test ideas and only accept them if personally confirmed
- However, this contradicts major Western religions' approaches
The psychological need for certainty
Humans have a strong psychological need for certainty. This helps explain:
- Why religions appeal: they offer absolute beliefs and moral principles
- The recent rise in fundamentalism: literal acceptance of simply expressed beliefs, ignoring interpretive complexities
- Why fundamentalism appeals to those wanting religious certainty
- How absolute conviction (moral or religious) can lead to extreme actions like martyrdom or suicide bombing
Dilemmas for thinking people in a multi-faith world
Key questions facing individuals in multicultural societies:
- Can someone holding religious beliefs with absolute certainty accept that their views may be open to challenge or that their perspective may not be the only true one?
- Can someone without religious beliefs accept they may be wrong and someone else's absolute truth claim may be correct?
- Would someone with religious beliefs consider that their beliefs are open to reasoned scrutiny?
- Could someone without religious beliefs who bases everything on reason and evidence (e.g., some scientists) consider there might be valid knowledge not subject to reason and evidence?
The challenge of competing claims
How do people deal with competing claims about life after death, reincarnation, eternal life, etc.?
Each religion is self-validating based on experience or authority. Competing claims can only be considered through reason and evidence. However, this assumes reason takes priority over religious teaching and experience – an assumption religious people may reject.
Key distinction: Religions often differentiate themselves by making it impossible to be a member of both simultaneously without losing something essential. Some religions produce creeds (lists of key beliefs) defining who is 'in' and who is not.
Important context: Creed-based religions in confrontation with one another are particularly Western. In China, for example, there is a blending of Confucian, Taoist and Buddhist traditions, with individuals using ceremonies from all three in different circumstances without seeing this as problematic.
Christian attitudes to other faiths
Exclusivism and inclusivism
In situations with multiple religions holding different beliefs, a fundamental question arises: can they all be equally true?
Key term: Exclusivism – The view that one religion is the only true one, and that other religions are wrong.
Exclusivist position:
- Claims one's own religion is the only true one
- Other religions are wrong, even if their beliefs appear similar
Inclusivist position:
- Acknowledges another religion may have aspects of belief that are the same and therefore 'true'
- However, still claims one's own religion is unique
Christian perspectives
Example: Exclusivist Christian View
Evangelical Christians typically believe:
- The goal of human life is salvation from sin and going to heaven
- This is only possible through a personal relationship with Jesus
- Therefore, only Christians with a personal relationship with Jesus can be saved
This position means that people of other faiths, no matter how virtuous their lives, cannot achieve salvation without accepting Jesus.
Example: Inclusivist Christian View
Other Christians argue:
- God may choose to forgive sins of those who haven't committed to Jesus
- People who have lived good lives may be saved
- Therefore, people of other faiths and none can also be saved
This position allows for the possibility of salvation outside Christianity while still maintaining Christianity's unique role in God's plan.
Mutually exclusive beliefs
Some beliefs cannot be reconciled:
- Christianity teaches Jesus is literally the 'Son of God'
- Islam teaches Jesus was an important prophet but only human
- It is impossible to accept both simultaneously
- This means Christianity and Islam are incompatible regarding Jesus's status
This illustrates the challenge of religious pluralism: some core beliefs of different religions are mutually exclusive and cannot both be true.
Exam tip: Be prepared to explain the difference between exclusivism and inclusivism with specific Christian examples. Understand how these positions affect interfaith relations.
Key Points to Remember:
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Migration to Britain in the 20th century created a multicultural, multi-faith society, particularly following post-WWII immigration from Eastern Europe, South Asia, the Caribbean and other regions.
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Multiculturalism is the principle that different cultures should be respected, celebrated and understood in their own terms, rather than requiring assimilation into a dominant culture.
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Freedom of religion is protected as a human right in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (Article 18), European Convention on Human Rights (Article 9), and British law (Human Rights Act 1998), though it has limits when religious expression causes harm.
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Religious pluralism in secular states allows people of many faiths to coexist peacefully, though it creates tensions with religious claims to absolute truth and can challenge social cohesion.
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Christian responses to religious diversity range from exclusivism (only Christianity is true) to inclusivism (other faiths may contain aspects of truth, though Christianity remains unique), affecting how Christians engage with people of other faiths in multicultural Britain.