The Authority of Jesus (AQA A-Level Religious Studies): Revision Notes
The Authority of Jesus
Understanding Jesus' authority is central to Christianity. Different Christian groups have varying views on whether Jesus possesses divine authority or human authority, and these differences significantly affect how Christians respond to his teachings.
Jesus' authority as God's authority
The mainstream Christian view
Most Christians today belong to churches that teach Jesus has divine authority because he is God incarnate. This belief is rooted in the doctrine of the Trinity, which states that there is one indivisible God existing in three persons: Father, Son, and Holy Spirit. Each person represents a different role of God:
- God the Father: Creator and sustainer of all existence
- God the Holy Spirit: The force of life in creation and ongoing presence in the world
- God the Son: God made flesh in the person of Jesus Christ
Sustainer: The idea that God maintains creation and keeps it in existence. If God ceased to sustain the universe, it would cease to exist.
Orthodox, Roman Catholic, and most Protestant Christians hold this Trinitarian view. For them, Jesus is not merely a representative of God but is actually God himself in human form.
The title "Son of God"
The phrase "Son of God" appears throughout the Gospels and has multiple layers of meaning.
Old Testament background
In the Old Testament, "Son of God" was sometimes used as an honorary title for people who represented God's authority, such as angels, the nation of Israel, or kings like David. In 2 Samuel 7:14, God promises David that his heirs will rule forever and calls them "sons of God". When the Davidic kingdom ended in the 6th century BCE, Jews began expecting a future Messiah (meaning "anointed one") who would restore David's line.
Messiah: The expected king descended from David who would be specially chosen by God to lead the Jewish people spiritually and politically.
New Testament usage
In the New Testament, "Son of God" takes on deeper meaning. At Jesus' baptism, a voice from heaven declares:
Biblical Evidence: Jesus' Baptism (Mark 1:11)
Thou art my beloved Son; with thee I am well pleased.
This suggests Jesus has the same relationship with God that a son has with his father - an intimate connection, sharing the same qualities and inheriting everything the father possesses.
Jesus himself says:
All things have been delivered to me by my Father; and no one knows the Son except the Father, and no one knows the Father except the Son and any one to whom the Son chooses to reveal him. (Matthew 11:27)
The title also connects Jesus to Jewish messianic expectations. When the High Priest questions Jesus during his trial, he asks:
I adjure you by the living God, tell us if you are the Christ [the Messiah], the Son of God. (Matthew 26:63)
Both Matthew and Luke include genealogies tracing Jesus' ancestry back to King David, establishing his credentials as the promised Messiah.
The title "Son of Man"
Jesus frequently referred to himself as "the Son of Man" in all four Gospels. This title has two main functions:
Emphasising humanity
Often, "Son of Man" highlights Jesus' human nature and vulnerability. For example, when someone asks to follow him, Jesus responds:
Foxes have holes, and birds of the air have nests; but the Son of man has nowhere to lay his head. (Luke 9:58)
This shows Jesus experienced the same hardships as any human being.
Concealing divinity
The title may also have helped Jesus avoid making explicit claims to divinity during his ministry, which could have led to his premature execution by Roman authorities. To outsiders, he appeared to be claiming only human status, but to those familiar with his works and teachings, the phrase hinted at his divine mission.
Some scholars identify a "Messianic Secret" in Mark's Gospel - the idea that Jesus' closest followers recognised him as the Messiah, but Jesus instructed them to keep this understanding hidden. This secret is only revealed after his death, when the centurion at the crucifixion declares:
Truly this man was the Son of God! (Mark 15:39)
The centurion's words suggest he saw something divine in Jesus that marked him as more than merely human.
Biblical evidence for divine authority
Several Gospel passages indicate Jesus possessed divine authority:
Healing at a distance
Worked Example: The Centurion's Faith (Matthew 8:5-13)
In this passage, a Roman centurion asks Jesus to heal his paralysed servant. The centurion demonstrates remarkable faith by saying he understands authority - just as he commands soldiers who obey him, Jesus can command disease to leave without even being present.
Result: Jesus heals the servant instantly from a distance, showing power that was believed to come only from God.
Claim to total authority
After his resurrection, Jesus tells his disciples:
All authority in heaven and on earth has been given to me. Go therefore and make disciples of all nations... baptizing them in the name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit. (Matthew 28:18-19)
This statement clearly places Jesus alongside God the Father and the Holy Spirit, indicating he shares in divine authority.
The Nicene Creed
The official statement of faith adopted at the Council of Constantinople in 381 CE expresses this orthodox view:
We believe in one God, the Father almighty, maker of heaven and on earth, of all things visible and invisible; And in one Lord, Jesus Christ, the only begotten Son of God...
This creed remains the accepted position of most Christian denominations today.
Jesus' authority as only human
While mainstream Christianity affirms Jesus' divinity, some Christian movements have viewed Jesus as possessing only human authority. This perspective comes from two main sources: specific historical Christian sects and liberal approaches to Scripture.
Historical Christian movements
Adoptionism
In the late 2nd and 3rd centuries CE, teachers like Theodotus of Byzantium and Paul of Samosata taught that Jesus was born fully human but was later adopted by God at his baptism. According to Adoptionists, Jesus' authority was something he acquired from God rather than something he possessed by nature. They based this view on Gospel accounts of Jesus' baptism when the voice from heaven declared him God's son.
The Church rejected Adoptionism as heresy at the Synod of Antioch towards the end of the 3rd century.
Arianism
In the 3rd and 4th centuries, a priest named Arius and his followers argued that Jesus was not truly divine but was created by God for a specific purpose. They believed "Son of God" was an honorary title rather than a statement about Jesus' nature. This sparked major controversy in the early Church.
The Council of Nicea in 325 CE ruled against Arianism, and the Council of Constantinople in 381 CE reaffirmed this decision, producing the final form of the Nicene Creed.
Catharism
Between the 11th and 12th centuries, a sect called Catharism arose in southern France. Cathars taught that physical matter was too corrupt for the perfect God to become incarnate. Therefore, Jesus could not be God in human form. Like Arians, they saw Jesus as having special but not divine status.
The Pope condemned Catharism in 1184, and the movement died out in the early 14th century, partly due to a crusade against its followers.
Unitarianism
Unitarianism became popular in 18th-century Britain and continues today with around 7,000 members in the UK. Unitarians hold a deistic understanding of God.
Deist: Someone who accepts God's existence based on reason and nature. Deists typically reject special revelation and believe God created the world but does not actively intervene in it.
Most Unitarians see Jesus as a great prophet and teacher but only human, without divine authority. Some Unitarians believe God adopted Jesus as his son at baptism, giving him special but not divine status. For Unitarians, human reason and experience are the final judges of how people should act, not divine commands.
Liberal Christian approach
Liberal Christians approach the question of Jesus' authority through their views on biblical inspiration and scientific reasoning.
View of biblical inspiration
Liberal Christians might examine how "Son of God" was used in earlier parts of the Bible, where it referred to beings representing God's authority (angels, Israel, kings) rather than being literally divine. Applying this understanding to Jesus, they might interpret "Son of God" as expressing that Jesus was close to God as a great teacher and spiritual leader without being literally God.
They also note the development of Christology over time. Mark's Gospel, written around 40 years after Jesus' death (approximately 70 CE), shows the early Christian community gradually developing their understanding of who Jesus was. The first line of Mark originally may not have included "Son of God" at all, as this phrase is missing from older manuscripts.
By the time of John's Gospel (written around 90-110 CE), the language is much more explicitly divine, portraying Jesus as the pre-existent "Word" of God. For liberal Christians, this progression suggests a developing theology rather than historical fact.
Scientific approach
Christians who prioritise scientific understanding of the world may accept God as creator but reject supernatural elements like miracles, including Jesus' resurrection. They might interpret resurrection symbolically - for example, as meaning "accepting Jesus brings new life" or "Jesus' message can never die" - rather than as a literal bodily resurrection.
Implications for understanding Jesus' authority
For Christians who see Jesus as only human, his teachings carry moral and inspirational weight but not absolute divine command. His authority comes from his wisdom, character, and spiritual insight rather than from being God. This allows Christians to evaluate his teachings contextually and decide how to apply them to modern situations.
Implications for Christian responses to Jesus' teaching
The way Christians respond to Jesus' teachings depends significantly on their understanding of his authority. The Sermon on the Mount (Matthew 5:38-48) provides a clear example of how different views of Jesus' authority lead to different practical responses.
The Sermon on the Mount: Matthew 5:38-48
Key Biblical Text: The Sermon on the Mount
This passage contains some of Jesus' most challenging ethical teachings:
You have heard that it was said, 'An eye for an eye, and a tooth for a tooth.' But I say to you, Do not resist one who is evil. But if any one strikes you on the right cheek, turn to him the other also; and if any one would sue you and take your coat, let him have your cloak as well; and if any one forces you to go one mile, go with him two miles. Give to him who begs from you, and do not refuse him who would borrow from you.
You have heard that it was said, 'You shall love your neighbor and hate your enemy.' But I say to you, Love your enemies and pray for those who persecute you, so that you may be sons of your Father who is in heaven; for he makes his sun rise on the evil and on the good, and sends rain on the just and on the unjust. For if you love those who love you, what reward have you? Do not even the tax collectors do the same? And if you salute only your brethren, what more are you doing than others? Do not even the Gentiles do the same? You, therefore, must be perfect, as your heavenly Father is perfect.
Gentiles: A biblical term meaning non-Jews.
This passage contains five main commands:
- Do not resist evil people who attack you
- Give freely more than is asked by anyone who makes demands
- Lend without expecting repayment
- Love your enemies
- Be perfect
Those who accept Jesus' authority as God's authority
Christians who believe Jesus is God incarnate read these commands as divine requirements, even though they recognise the need for careful interpretation and understanding.
Pacifist response
Practical Application: Christian Pacifism
Many Christians take Jesus' command not to resist evil literally and become pacifists. The Religious Society of Friends (Quakers) is a Christian organisation that refuses to bear arms or engage in conflict based on this teaching.
During the First World War, many Christians became conscientious objectors, refusing to fight. Some were imprisoned for their beliefs, while others volunteered for medical support roles on battlefields.
Non-pacifist response
Not all Christians who accept Jesus' divine authority are pacifists. Some consider this passage alongside other Gospel teachings where Jesus seems to permit or encourage conflict. For example, in Luke 22:36, Jesus tells his disciples:
But now, let him who has a purse take it, and likewise a bag. And let him who has no sword sell his mantle and buy one.
These Christians might argue that while Jesus advocated for peace and love, he also recognised the need for self-defence in certain circumstances.
Challenges of the commands
Jesus' commands challenge normal human behaviour. Most people naturally defend themselves when attacked, limit their charitable giving, lend only when repayment is likely, and hate their enemies. The command to "be perfect" seems impossible since no human can possess all of God's qualities.
However, Christians who accept Jesus' divine authority must take these teachings seriously as God's requirements for his followers, even if they are extremely difficult to fulfil.
Those who accept Jesus' authority as only human
Christians who view Jesus' authority as human rather than divine feel free to interpret and evaluate his teachings according to their experience and judgement.
Contextual interpretation
A liberal Christian might note that Jesus spoke in the context of Roman occupation of Palestine. Resistance to Roman rule could result in crucifixion, and Romans could force any Jewish person to carry their burdens. Jesus may have been giving practical advice for survival: "If a Roman soldier forces you to carry something one mile, volunteer for two miles - at least you'll stay alive."
Moral disagreement
Some Christians might conclude that Jesus was simply wrong in advocating complete pacifism. They might argue it would be cowardly not to defend your family from attack, for example.
Understanding speech forms
Another approach is to consider what kind of speech Jesus is using. The command to "be perfect, as your heavenly Father is perfect" is clearly impossible to fulfil literally. Jesus may be using hyperbole - deliberate exaggeration to make a point. He might be saying, "Don't be satisfied with anything less than the impossible" - emphasising the attempt rather than the achievement.
Jesus may have believed the end of the world was near, so he was urging people to strive for perfection in preparation for God's Kingdom, even knowing they could not achieve it.
Individual rather than state ethics
Some interpreters suggest Jesus is telling individuals how to make moral sense of their lives rather than giving instructions for governments or societies. Non-resistance and loving one's enemies can be personally beneficial - continued violence and hatred often rebound on people, and generosity tends to be more productive than selfishness.
Unitarian position
UK Unitarians take a very broad view:
On pacifism, as on all issues of personal conscience, each Unitarian is free to come to his or her own conclusions without fear of judgement or censure. So although there are many Unitarian pacifists, there is no explicit requirement or implicit expectation on the matter. Unitarians live with diversity and its potential tensions - on this subject as on many others. A Unitarian congregation may include both pacifists and members of the armed forces.
This illustrates how viewing Jesus' authority as human rather than divine allows for individual interpretation and diverse responses to his teachings.
Jesus' value as a role model
All Christians, regardless of whether they view Jesus as divine or human, see him as a role model for Christian living.
For those who see Jesus as divine
If Jesus is God incarnate, then human beings should model their behaviour on the divine qualities Jesus exemplifies. His teaching in the Sermon on the Mount is supported by his own behaviour - when arrested, he submitted without fighting to defend himself.
Some Christians, particularly from Evangelical denominations, use the phrase "What Would Jesus Do?" (WWJD) as a reminder to act according to Jesus' principle of love in all situations. This approach only works if Jesus' example is relevant and possible for ordinary human beings, or for humans empowered by the Holy Spirit.
For those who see Jesus as only human
If Jesus is understood as fully human, his example becomes more directly applicable since he faced the same limitations and challenges as other people. However, his authority as a role model may be less absolute.
Even non-Christians can view Jesus as a role model. Mahatma Gandhi, a devout Hindu leader who opposed British rule in India, said:
To me, he was one of the greatest teachers humanity has ever had... I refuse to believe that there now exists or has ever existed a person that has not made use of his example to lessen his sins, even though he may have done so without realizing it.
The complexity of Jesus as role model
The Gospels show Jesus as peaceful and non-violent in some situations but forceful in others. When he found merchants and money-changers in the Temple, he overturned their tables and drove them out, accusing them of being thieves. For some Christians, this willingness to respond vigorously to injustice provides a model that allows them to do the same.
The challenge lies in discerning which aspects of Jesus' behaviour apply to which situations, and whether the more divine Jesus is, the less relevant his example becomes (since no human could fully imitate God), even though it carries more authority.
Exam tips
- Be prepared to explain both views of Jesus' authority and their implications
- Know specific biblical references, especially Matthew 5:38-48
- Understand the historical context of alternative views (Adoptionism, Arianism, Catharism, Unitarianism)
- Be able to discuss how different views of Jesus' authority lead to different ethical responses
- Consider both the advantages and challenges of each view
- Remember that most Christians today hold the Trinitarian view
Key Points to Remember:
- Two main views: Christians understand Jesus' authority either as God's authority (mainstream view) or as only human authority (minority view)
- Trinity doctrine: Most Christians believe in one God existing in three persons - Father, Son, and Holy Spirit - with Jesus being God the Son
- Key titles: "Son of God" emphasises Jesus' divine nature and messianic role; "Son of Man" emphasises his humanity
- Historical alternatives: Adoptionism, Arianism, Catharism, and Unitarianism have all taught that Jesus is human rather than divine
- Practical implications: Understanding of Jesus' authority affects how Christians respond to his teachings, particularly on controversial issues like pacifism and enemy love
- Role model: All Christians see Jesus as a role model, though the significance varies depending on whether he is viewed as divine or human