Hamlet (Edexcel A-Level English Literature): Revision Notes
Plot Summary
Introduction to the Play
William Shakespeare's tragedy Hamlet unfolds in Elsinore, Denmark, following the sudden death of King Hamlet. The play explores Prince Hamlet's moral and psychological turmoil after he discovers the dark truth behind his father's demise. At the heart of the drama lies Hamlet's struggle between his duty to avenge his father and his uncertainty about how to act on this knowledge.
Hamlet is considered one of the greatest examples of a revenge tragedy, a dramatic genre in which the protagonist is driven by the need to avenge a wrong. However, unlike typical revenge heroes, Hamlet is characterized by his intellectual nature and constant self-questioning, which makes him hesitate rather than act impulsively.
The story begins with Denmark in a state of unease. King Hamlet has recently died, and his brother Claudius has swiftly married the widowed Queen Gertrude and claimed the throne. Into this unsettled situation comes a supernatural visitor, setting in motion a chain of events that will lead to tragedy for nearly everyone involved.
Act I: The Ghost's Revelation
The Appearance of the Ghost
The play opens on a cold night at the castle in Elsinore. Guards have been witnessing a mysterious apparition over the past two nights. This restless spirit, which bears a striking resemblance to the recently deceased King Hamlet, has been wandering the castle grounds. The guards, Francisco and Bernardo, inform Hamlet's trusted friend Horatio about what they have seen.
Claudius and Gertrude's Wedding
The following morning brings the wedding celebration of Claudius and Queen Gertrude, who was married to the late king. This hasty marriage troubles Prince Hamlet deeply. When the festivities end and he finds himself alone, Hamlet expresses his profound disgust at their union. He views this marriage as a betrayal of his father's memory at best, and potentially as something far more sinister. Horatio and the guards then arrive to inform Hamlet about the ghost, urging him to meet the apparition that night.
The speed of the marriage is significant in Elizabethan culture, where proper mourning periods were expected to be much longer. Hamlet's disgust stems not only from grief but also from what he perceives as his mother's indecent haste in remarrying.
The Polonius Family
Meanwhile, another storyline develops involving the family of Polonius, the king's chief advisor. His son Laertes is preparing to return to school and bids farewell to his sister Ophelia. Ophelia has developed romantic feelings for Hamlet, which concerns both her brother and father. Polonius delivers an extensive lecture to Laertes about proper behaviour at school. Both father and son then caution Ophelia about her relationship with Hamlet, warning her to keep her distance. In response to their concerns, Ophelia promises to end all contact with the prince.
Hamlet Meets His Father's Spirit
That night marks a turning point in the story. Hamlet encounters the ghost, who claims to be the spirit of his murdered father. The ghost reveals a shocking truth: Claudius murdered King Hamlet by pouring poison into his ear whilst he slept in the garden. Even more disturbing, the ghost suggests that Gertrude had been unfaithful with Claudius even before the king's death.
The ghost's revelation is the catalyst for the entire tragedy. The murder method—poison poured into the ear—is both symbolic and literal: Claudius corrupted the kingdom through lies and deception, poisoning Denmark from within just as he poisoned his brother's ear.
The ghost commands Hamlet to avenge this murder but specifically instructs him not to harm his mother. Hamlet agrees to carry out this revenge. Later, he confides in Horatio and Marcellus, one of the guards, that he intends to feign madness. This pretence, he believes, will allow him to investigate the truth and plan his revenge without arousing suspicion.
Act II: Spies and Schemes
Polonius's Suspicions
Act II opens with Polonius sending his servant Reynaldo to France. His mission is to spy on Laertes and report back on the young man's behaviour whilst at school. This establishes Polonius as someone who favours surveillance and manipulation.
Shortly after, Ophelia enters in a distressed state. She reports to her father that Hamlet came to her room behaving very strangely. According to Ophelia, he grabbed her wrists and stared intensely into her eyes with a wild expression. She also confirms that she has obeyed their earlier instructions and cut off all contact with Hamlet.
Polonius, upon hearing this, becomes convinced that he has identified the cause of Hamlet's apparent madness. He concludes that Hamlet is deeply in love with Ophelia, and that her rejection has driven him to this disturbed state. Polonius decides to inform the king and devise a plan to spy on Hamlet whilst he is with Ophelia, hoping this will confirm his theory.
The theme of spying and surveillance runs throughout Hamlet. Nearly every character either spies on others or is being spied upon. This creates an atmosphere of distrust and deception that mirrors the corruption at the heart of the Danish court.
Rosencrantz and Guildenstern Arrive
Queen Gertrude, also concerned about Hamlet's strange behaviour, has taken her own action. She has asked two of Hamlet's old school friends, Rosencrantz and Guildenstern, to visit the prince and try to discover what is troubling him. Unbeknownst to them, they are being used as spies by the king and queen.
The Travelling Players
Soon after, a travelling theatre troupe arrives at the castle. Hamlet, seizing an opportunity, makes a specific request. He asks the players to perform a particular play called The Murder of Gonzago the following evening. Importantly, Hamlet inserts a few passages of his own writing into the script.
Left alone on stage, Hamlet delivers a soliloquy expressing his deep frustration with his own indecisiveness. He grapples with a critical question: is the ghost truly his father's spirit, or could it be an evil specter attempting to trick him into committing a sin? This uncertainty has paralysed him from acting on the ghost's command.
Hamlet's hesitation is rooted in legitimate concerns. In Elizabethan belief, spirits could be either genuinely departed souls or demonic entities in disguise. If Hamlet acts on false information from an evil spirit, he would damn his own soul by committing murder. This theological anxiety explains much of his delay in seeking revenge.
However, Hamlet has formed a plan. The play he has arranged depicts a king who murders his brother and then marries his sister-in-law, closely mirroring the situation with Claudius. Hamlet believes that if the ghost's story is true, Claudius will react to the performance in a way that reveals his guilt. This will give Hamlet the certainty he needs to proceed with revenge.
Act III: Confirming Guilt and Accidental Murder
The Nunnery Scene
As Act III begins, Polonius and Claudius put their spying plan into action. They position themselves where they can secretly observe Hamlet and Ophelia during their encounter. When Ophelia attempts to return gifts that Hamlet had previously given her, his response is harsh and cruel. He spurns her affections and tells her to go to a nunnery, a statement that can be interpreted as both a religious institution and, in Elizabethan slang, a brothel.
Watching this interaction, Claudius grows suspicious. He concludes that Hamlet's madness is not caused by rejected love for Ophelia, as Polonius had suggested. Instead, the king decides that Hamlet poses a potential threat and should be sent away to England, unless Gertrude can determine the true cause of her son's behaviour.
The Play-Within-a-Play
During the evening performance of The Murder of Gonzago, the plan reaches its crucial test. Claudius watches the play unfold, and when the actors reach the scene depicting poison being poured into a sleeping king's ear, the king's reaction is dramatic. He abruptly stops the performance, revealing his extreme discomfort.
This scene is often called "The Mousetrap" (a name Hamlet himself gives it). The play-within-a-play device serves multiple purposes: it provides Hamlet with proof of Claudius's guilt, it creates dramatic tension for the audience, and it demonstrates Shakespeare's own interest in the power of theatre to reveal truth and provoke conscience.
For Hamlet, this is the confirmation he sought. He tells Horatio that he is now certain Claudius murdered his father. The play has succeeded in catching the conscience of the king.
The Prayer Scene
In the next scene, Claudius attempts to pray in church. His guilt weighs heavily upon him, actually preventing him from completing his prayers. At this moment, Hamlet enters and sees Claudius apparently in prayer. Hamlet has his sword ready and could easily kill his uncle right there.
However, Hamlet hesitates. He reasons that if he kills Claudius whilst the king is praying, Claudius's soul might go to heaven, as he would die in a state of repentance. For Hamlet, this would be insufficient revenge. He wants Claudius to be damned, not saved. So he sheathes his sword and decides to wait for a better opportunity when Claudius is engaged in sinful activity.
The prayer scene represents the tragic heart of the play. Ironically, Claudius reveals that he cannot truly pray because his guilt is too great—meaning Hamlet could have killed him without risk of sending him to heaven. Hamlet's overthinking and desire for perfect revenge leads him to miss this opportunity, resulting in the deaths of many innocent people later in the play.
Confrontation with Gertrude
Hamlet's next stop is his mother's bedchamber, where Gertrude has requested to speak with him. Their conversation becomes heated and confrontational. Hamlet bitterly criticises his mother for her hasty remarriage.
During this argument, Hamlet hears a noise from behind a tapestry hanging on the wall. Assuming the eavesdropper is Claudius, Hamlet draws his sword and stabs through the fabric. When he pulls back the tapestry, however, he discovers he has killed Polonius, who had been hiding there to spy on the conversation.
At this moment, the ghost appears again. This time, the spirit rebukes Hamlet for speaking so harshly to his mother, reminding him of the earlier command not to harm Gertrude. Significantly, Gertrude cannot see the ghost during this appearance. Witnessing her son talking to something invisible only strengthens her conviction that Hamlet has truly lost his mind. After the ghost departs, Hamlet drags Polonius's body offstage.
Act IV: Madness, Plotting and Drowning
Hamlet's Dark Humour
Act IV begins with Hamlet making jokes about having killed Polonius, showing a dark and somewhat callous side to his character. Claudius, now genuinely fearing for his own safety, orders Rosencrantz and Guildenstern to escort Hamlet to England immediately.
Claudius has prepared letters for the English king with secret instructions. These letters request that the English monarch execute Hamlet upon his arrival. This way, Claudius hopes to eliminate the threat Hamlet poses without having to dirty his own hands or anger the Danish people, who are fond of the prince.
Ophelia's Madness
Gertrude receives distressing news: Ophelia has gone mad following the death of her father. When Ophelia appears on stage, her transformation is shocking. She enters singing strange, disconnected songs and speaking in confused, fragmented ways about her father's death. Unlike Hamlet's calculated "madness," Ophelia's mental breakdown appears genuine and tragic.
The contrast between Hamlet's feigned madness and Ophelia's real madness is one of the play's most powerful dramatic elements. While Hamlet chooses madness as a disguise and maintains control over it, Ophelia's breakdown is involuntary and complete. Her madness stems from grief, betrayal, and the loss of her father, her lover, and her agency.
The news of Polonius's death also impacts Laertes, who becomes understandably upset when he learns his father has been killed. Claudius, seeing an opportunity, begins to manipulate Laertes's grief and anger, turning it against Hamlet.
Hamlet's Escape and Return
A messenger then approaches Horatio with unexpected news in the form of a letter from Hamlet. The letter contains a remarkable story: whilst travelling to England, Hamlet managed to sneak aboard a pirate vessel that had attacked their ship. After the ships parted ways, the pirates, in exchange for future favours from Hamlet, agreed to bring him back to Denmark. Hamlet has returned.
Plotting the Duel
Soon after, another messenger arrives at court, this time with a letter for Claudius announcing Hamlet's return to Denmark. Claudius and Laertes, caught off guard by this development, quickly devise a new plot to kill Hamlet. They need a plan that will not upset Gertrude or anger the people of Denmark, with whom Hamlet is popular.
The two conspirators agree to arrange what appears to be a friendly fencing duel between Hamlet and Laertes. However, they plan to make it deadly. Laertes secretly acquires a poison blade for the duel. As an additional precaution, Claudius plans to offer Hamlet a poisoned goblet of wine during the match. This way, even if the poisoned blade fails, the drink will ensure Hamlet's death.
The double plot—poisoned blade and poisoned drink—demonstrates Claudius's paranoid thoroughness. However, this redundancy will prove to be his undoing, as the multiple methods of murder create opportunities for the poison to affect unintended victims, including Claudius himself.
Ophelia's Drowning
Just as they finalise these plans, Gertrude enters with tragic news: Ophelia has drowned. The circumstances suggest suicide, though the death is presented with some ambiguity. This news reignites Laertes's anger and grief, making him even more determined to go through with the plan to kill Hamlet.
Act V: The Fatal Duel
The Graveyard Scene
Act V opens in a graveyard where two gravediggers are preparing Ophelia's grave. As they work, they discuss the nature of her death and whether someone who has committed suicide deserves a Christian burial. Their conversation is darkly comic, providing some relief from the mounting tragedy.
Hamlet and Horatio arrive at the graveyard. One of the gravediggers introduces Hamlet to a skull he has unearthed. Hamlet recognises it as the skull of Yorick, the old king's jester whom Hamlet had known and loved as a child. Holding Yorick's skull, Hamlet delivers reflections on mortality, the nature of death, and how death makes equals of us all, from jesters to kings.
The scene with Yorick's skull has become one of the most iconic moments in all of literature. Hamlet's meditation on mortality—holding the physical remains of someone he once knew and loved—forces him to confront the ultimate reality of death. This moment of contemplation prepares him for his own approaching death and represents a shift from his earlier philosophical hesitations to a more resigned acceptance of fate.
Ophelia's Funeral
The sombre atmosphere is interrupted by a funeral procession. Among the mourners are Claudius, Gertrude, and Laertes. When they reach the grave, Laertes, overcome with grief, leaps into his sister's grave and demands to be buried alive with her, declaring his love for his sister.
This dramatic display prompts Hamlet to reveal his presence. He too jumps into the grave, confronting Laertes. The two men brawl whilst Hamlet exclaims that he loved Ophelia more than forty thousand brothers could. This exaggerated declaration shows the depth of Hamlet's feelings, which he had previously hidden or denied. After the confrontation, Hamlet exits, and Claudius quietly reminds Laertes of their plan to kill Hamlet, urging patience.
Hamlet's Confession to Horatio
Later, Hamlet explains to Horatio how he managed to escape his intended execution in England. During the voyage, Hamlet discovered and read the letters that Rosencrantz and Guildenstern were carrying. These letters, written by Claudius, instructed the English king to execute Hamlet immediately.
Hamlet took action by rewriting one of the letters. His forged letter demanded the beheading of Rosencrantz and Guildenstern instead. He then swapped the letters before making his escape on the pirate ship. This means that Hamlet's former school friends are now unknowingly carrying their own death warrants to England.
The Fatal Duel Begins
A courtier named Osric interrupts their conversation with news about the proposed duel with Laertes. The court gathers for what is presented as a friendly fencing match. Laertes takes up his poisoned blade, whilst Claudius has his poisoned goblet of wine ready.
The duel begins, and after the first point, Claudius offers Hamlet the poisoned drink. However, Hamlet refuses it, wanting to continue the match first. Gertrude, in a moment of maternal pride, picks up the goblet and takes a drink to toast her son's success, despite Claudius's attempts to stop her.
The Tragic Conclusion
The duel continues, and whilst Hamlet is momentarily unguarded, Laertes wounds him with the poisoned blade. In the ensuing scuffle, the two men grapple with each other, and their rapiers become mixed up. When they resume fighting, Hamlet wounds Laertes with Laertes's own poisoned blade.
Suddenly, Gertrude collapses. She cries out that she has been poisoned by the drink. The truth begins to unravel rapidly. Laertes, knowing he is dying from the poison on his own blade, confesses everything. He reveals the plot he shared with Claudius, including the poisoned blade and the poisoned drink. Laertes asks for Hamlet's forgiveness for his part in the treachery.
The final scene demonstrates the self-destructive nature of revenge. The poisoned weapons that Claudius and Laertes prepared for Hamlet end up killing not only their intended target but also themselves and an innocent bystander (Gertrude). Every character who participated in plots and schemes throughout the play meets their end in this final tragedy.
Hamlet, now also poisoned and knowing his death is imminent, acts decisively. He takes the poisoned blade and wounds Claudius with it. He then forces the dying king to drink the remaining poisoned wine, ensuring Claudius's death. The king who murdered Hamlet's father and plotted Hamlet's own death is finally brought to justice.
Laertes dies, having exchanged forgiveness with Hamlet. As Hamlet himself begins to succumb to the poison, he makes one final important decision. He names Fortinbras, the Prince of Norway, as the rightful king of Denmark. Hamlet requests that he be given a soldier's burial, acknowledging the warrior he has become through this tragic journey. With these final acts completed, Hamlet dies.
The play concludes with the arrival of Fortinbras, who takes control of Denmark and orders that Hamlet be honoured with a military funeral, respecting the dying prince's wishes.
Remember!
Key Points to Remember:
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The ghost of King Hamlet reveals that Claudius murdered him by pouring poison in his ear whilst he slept, setting the entire tragedy in motion.
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Hamlet uses a play-within-a-play called The Murder of Gonzago to test whether Claudius is truly guilty. When Claudius reacts with horror to the staged murder, Hamlet gains the confirmation he needs.
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Hamlet's hesitation is a central theme. He delays killing Claudius when he finds him praying because he fears Claudius might go to heaven if killed in a state of repentance.
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Ophelia's descent into genuine madness contrasts with Hamlet's feigned madness. Her death by drowning, following her father's murder and Hamlet's rejection, represents one of the tragedy's most poignant losses.
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The final duel scene brings together all the threads of revenge and betrayal. The poisoned weapons intended for Hamlet ultimately kill Laertes, Gertrude, Claudius, and Hamlet himself, demonstrating how revenge destroys everyone it touches.