Introduction (Edexcel A-Level History): Revision Notes
Introduction
Urban II's struggle for papal authority
When Urban II was elected pope in 1088, he immediately faced a serious challenge to his position. The German Emperor had appointed a rival claimant to the papacy named Clement III, backing him with military force. This rival pope is known as an antipope – someone who claims to be pope in opposition to the legitimate holder of the office according to Church law.
For a decade, Urban II fought against Clement III through both diplomatic negotiations and military action. This conflict centred on control of Rome itself, with Urban II spending much of this time defending his position. However, by 1095, Urban II decided to change strategy. Rather than remaining defensive, he chose to go on the offensive by creating an entirely new form of warfare: the crusade.
Key terms
Antipope: A person claiming to be pope in opposition to the legitimate pope recognised by Church law. Clement III was appointed by the German Emperor in opposition to Pope Gregory VII and later Urban II.
Papacy: The office and authority of the pope, often used to refer to the papal administration and those who worked on the pope's behalf.
Holy Land: The regions associated with the life of Christ and his apostles. After the crusaders captured these territories, they became known as Outremer (meaning "overseas" in French).
The First Crusade (1095)
The Council of Clermont
On 27 November 1095, Pope Urban II proclaimed the First Crusade at the Council of Clermont in France. His primary objective was to rally the Christians of western Europe to recapture Jerusalem from Turkish Muslim control.
The response was remarkable. Approximately 60,000 people departed from France and Italy, travelling overland towards the Holy Land. This expedition proved highly successful, capturing Jerusalem and establishing crusader states in the region. This victory set in motion a series of crusades throughout the 12th century, aimed at defending the newly conquered territories.
Background to the crusade
The call for the crusade came after the Byzantine Emperor, Alexius Comnenus I, appealed to the Church council at Piacenza in 1095 for military assistance. He needed help to force Turkish armies out of Asia Minor (modern-day Turkey) and to liberate Jerusalem. This request came in the context of serious Byzantine losses, particularly following the Battle of Manzikert in August 1071, when the Muslim ruler Alp Arslan defeated and captured the Byzantine emperor Romanus IV Diogenes, gaining control over much of Asia Minor.
The Byzantine Emperor's appeal for help was crucial – it provided Urban II with both a legitimate cause and an opportunity to demonstrate papal leadership across Christendom. This external threat became the catalyst for transforming internal papal struggles into an outward-focused military campaign.
The later crusades
The success of the First Crusade led to subsequent military expeditions to defend or reclaim territories in the Holy Land:
The Second Crusade (1147)
- Launched in response to the capture of Edessa, one of the crusader states
- Drew support from major European rulers
The Third Crusade (1189)
- Launched after Muslims recaptured Jerusalem
- Involved the most powerful leaders in western Europe, including:
- The King of France
- The German Emperor
- King Richard I of England (who achieved legendary status as a crusader leader)
Both later crusades attracted Europe's most powerful political figures and relied on leaders who became famous for their military exploits.
The pattern of crusading became cyclical: initial conquest led to the establishment of crusader states, which then required ongoing military support to maintain. Each major loss of territory – such as Edessa in 1147 or Jerusalem in 1187 – triggered a new wave of crusading activity from western Europe.
Understanding crusader motivations
This unit examines three main categories of motivation that drove thousands of people to become crusaders:
Religious belief
The most fundamental motivation was religious faith. Crusaders believed they were:
- Performing God's work
- Fighting for a holy cause
- Earning eternal salvation in Heaven as a reward
Many participants were willing to give up several years of their lives to fight for Jerusalem because of these deeply held religious convictions.
The promise of spiritual rewards was extremely powerful in medieval Christian society. Pope Urban II offered crusaders remission of sins and the assurance of salvation, making the crusade not just a military campaign but a form of armed pilgrimage.
Political motivations
Popes had multiple political reasons for launching crusades:
- Extending papal power: Crusades helped strengthen the pope's authority and influence
- Responding to threats: The Christian empires of Europe faced genuine military and political dangers from Muslim powers
- Unifying Christian Europe: Crusades could redirect internal conflicts outward
For Urban II specifically, the crusade was a brilliant political manoeuvre. By calling for a crusade, he positioned himself as the leader of all Christendom, strengthening his legitimacy against the antipope Clement III and demonstrating that he, not the German Emperor, held true spiritual authority.
Knightly motivations
Knights and nobles – the elite fighting class – were particularly important crusader recruits. They were motivated by:
- Noble expectations: The social expectation that knights should fight for worthy causes
- Honour and glory: The chance to prove themselves in battle
- Material rewards: The opportunity to gain wealth, land, and power in the conquered territories
Key events timeline (1070-1130)
1071: Pope Gregory VII unsuccessfully attempted to launch a holy war to help Christians in the East, offering to lead 50,000 volunteers to the Holy Land
August 1071: Battle of Manzikert – Muslim ruler Alp Arslan defeated and captured Byzantine Emperor Romanus IV Diogenes, gaining control of much of Asia Minor
1088: Urban II elected pope, beginning his decade-long struggle against antipope Clement III
1094: Pope Urban II finally gained control of the Lateran Palace in Rome from the German Emperor's candidate, Clement III
1095: Byzantine Emperor Alexius Comnenus I appealed to the Church council at Piacenza for help against the Turks
27 November 1095: The First Crusade proclaimed at the Council of Clermont by Pope Urban II
1119: The nobility of Antioch were killed at the Battle of the Field of Blood, prompting Pope Calixtus II to encourage further crusading
1119: A group of knights formed under the leadership of Hugh of Payns to protect pilgrims traveling to Jerusalem (early formation of military orders)
1147: The Second Crusade launched in response to the fall of Edessa
1189: The Third Crusade launched following the Muslim recapture of Jerusalem
Key Points to Remember:
- Urban II transformed papal strategy in 1095 by launching the First Crusade, moving from defensive to offensive action against his enemies
- The First Crusade (1095) was proclaimed at the Council of Clermont and attracted around 60,000 participants who successfully captured Jerusalem
- Three main types of motivation drove crusaders: religious belief (salvation), political ambitions (papal power and security), and knightly ideals (honour and wealth)
- The Second Crusade (1147) responded to the capture of Edessa, while the Third Crusade (1189) followed the Muslim reconquest of Jerusalem
- The Byzantine Emperor's appeal for help against Turkish forces in 1095 provided the immediate trigger for Urban II's call to crusade