Government in the Last Years of Elizabeth I’s Reign, 1589-1603 (Edexcel A-Level History): Revision Notes

Social and Economic Distress of the 1590s

Context before the crisis

The first three decades of Elizabeth I's reign (1558-1588) had been a period of relative social and economic stability. The population, which had declined during the worst years of dearth (severe food shortage) and disease in the late 1550s, had recovered and was growing again. Harvests were generally good, and whilst hunger and poverty remained significant problems, local authorities had been able to stockpile supplies during these more stable years. This period of relative calm meant that England was reasonably well-prepared for potential future crises.

However, from 1594 onwards, the situation deteriorated rapidly. A series of harvest failures in 1594, 1595, 1596 and 1597 created a severe social and economic crisis that threatened the stability of Tudor society.

Rising prices, food shortages and mortality rates

The harvest crisis

The harvests of the mid-1590s were catastrophic, with the worst years being 1596-97 when excessive rainfall ruined the crops. The impact was particularly severe because food supplies required more than a year to recover after a bad harvest. Multiple consecutive harvest failures meant that problems multiplied over several years with no opportunity for the economy to recover between crises.

Dramatic price increases

One of the most serious consequences of repeated harvest failures was that food prices rose dramatically due to high demand and limited supply. The price of wheat, which was used to make bread (one of the most important sources of cheap food for the poor), more than doubled between 1593-94 and 1596-97:

Agricultural prices overall were higher in the period 1594-98 than at any other time during the entire Tudor period. As wheat became unaffordable for many, people turned to cheaper but less nutritious grains such as barley, oats, peas and beans. This pushed up demand for these alternative products as well, leading to further price rises across the board.

The collapse of real wages

For those with little or no income, these price rises were devastating. The value of real wages (wages adjusted for the cost of living) was falling dramatically. In 1597, real wages reached their lowest level for any year between 1260 and 1950 according to the Phelps-Brown Index. This means that working people's purchasing power was at its weakest point in nearly 700 years - an extraordinary statistic that highlights the severity of the crisis.

Urban poverty

The problems were particularly severe in the towns, where a high proportion of the population were already living on or below the poverty line. The situation was made worse by migration from the countryside, as the rural poor moved to towns in search of food and employment.

In London, it is estimated that the proportion of people living in poverty rose from 5 percent to 9 percent in the late 1590s. Although records are scarce, the situation was probably as bad, if not worse, in other urban areas, especially smaller towns. A survey conducted in Ipswich in 1597 revealed that 13 percent of the population were classified as either impotent poor (those unable to work due to age or disability) or able-bodied poor (those capable of work but unemployed).

Regional variations in suffering

The impact of the crisis varied across different regions of England.

Despite government attempts to ease the problems by banning grain exports and prohibiting the feeding of peas to cattle, there was genuine starvation in some areas, especially during the worst years of 1596-97. One observer wrote in a letter to William Cecil in 1596 warning that "this year will be the hardest year for the poor people that hath happened in any man's memory." The prediction proved accurate.

Rising mortality rates

As food shortages worsened, the death rate rose significantly:

• In 1596 and 1597, the death rate was 21 percent above the national average
• In 1597-98, this had increased to 26 percent above the national average

Those already weakened by malnourishment were more vulnerable to disease. Plague was a particular problem in London, especially in 1593-94, when the theatres were closed because of an outbreak. It is likely that other towns, where conditions were cramped and unsanitary and there was increasing hardship, suffered similar outbreaks.

Strain on poor relief

By 1598, the level of social and economic distress was so severe that whole families were seeking poor relief, not just individuals. This placed the system for poor relief, which had been established in the 1570s, under immense strain. The existing structures were simply not designed to cope with a crisis of this magnitude.

Riots and social tension

Rising crime rates

The combination of hunger, high prices and rising death rates led to a significant increase in social tension across England. Crime rates rose sharply in the 1590s, leading to more prosecutions in the law courts. The rate of theft rose considerably in the years 1596-98, probably as a direct result of social and economic hardship. It is likely that many of these thefts resulted from genuine need for food and clothes, and were impulse crimes committed out of desperation rather than planned criminal activity.

Food riots of 1595

There were clear signs that Tudor society was under increased pressure. In 1595, food riots broke out in London, the South East and the South West.

Although the London riots were suppressed, unrest was reported in Kent and Norfolk in 1595-96.

References to Kett's Rebellion

Worryingly for the government, there was talk in Kent and Norfolk of establishing 'camps' to protest against farmers and those who were stockpiling grain to make profits. The rebels in Norfolk referred directly to Robert Kett's Rebellion (1549), which had taken the form of a series of rebel camps.

In 1596-97, the sense of unrest continued with further food riots in East Anglia, the South West and on the border between Kent and Sussex.

Government fears of vagrants

The government and local authorities were deeply concerned about the level of social tension. They particularly feared bands of violent vagrants attacking their social superiors. These fears were probably fuelled by the widespread publication of pamphlets in the 1590s containing lurid descriptions of crimes allegedly committed by wandering bands of beggars.

A Justice of the Peace from Somerset, Edward Hext, wrote to Lord Burghley in 1596 expressing his concerns:

The Oxfordshire rising, 1596

When the Oxfordshire rising broke out in November 1596, the authorities reacted swiftly and with extreme violence, despite the small scale of the protest. The rising was triggered by concerns over enclosures and food prices in the region.

Further measures: The Council's paranoia was also apparent in its response in Oxfordshire, where a special charge was made in the local assizes (law courts) against those responsible for enclosure. The rising may also have been the trigger for the Poor Laws that were passed in 1597 and 1601.

The government response to the social and economic problems of the 1590s

Books of Orders (1586-87)

Even before the mid-1590s crisis, the Tudor central government was already considering how to respond to poverty, disease and food shortages. As early as 1586-87, Books of Orders were printed and regularly reissued throughout the 1590s. These were documents sent to all Justices of the Peace (JPs) instructing them on what actions they should take in the event of plague or famine.

Parliamentary action 1597 and 1601

In the parliaments of 1597 and 1601, serious attempts were made to deal with the problems caused by the successive bad harvests of 1594-97. The scale of concern is evident from the fact that in 1597-98, 11 out of the 17 bills introduced were attempts to deal with poverty.

The Vagrancy Act 1597

A new Vagrancy Act was passed in 1597 with harsh punishments designed to deter vagrancy:

For first-time offenders:

• Vagrants to be arrested
• Whipped
• Returned to their parishes
• Forced to work if able-bodied
• Sent to the almshouse if they were impotent poor

For persistent vagrants:

• Sent to houses of correction
• Or sent to work on English galley ships
• Final punishment was execution for felony

The Tillage Act 1597

Debates over enclosure arose again in Parliament, particularly concerning the effect that enclosure for sheep farming was having on arable farming and therefore on food supplies. The Tillage Act (1597) attempted to reverse the effects of enclosure by:

• Forcing pasture land that had been enclosed since 1588 to be restored to arable farming

This was an attempt to increase food production by ensuring more land was used for growing crops rather than grazing sheep.

The Poor Law 1597 and 1601

Most significantly, a new Poor Law was passed in 1597 - the first since 1576. Although this Act did not introduce many completely new ideas, it brought together in one piece of legislation the various aspects of poor relief that had been developing over the previous 30 years. With minor corrections added in the Poor Law of 1601, it established the system of poor relief that lasted into the 19th century.

Administrative safeguards:

The Act included provisions to prevent corruption and ensure efficiency:

• Overseers ordered to meet monthly
• Submit their accounts to the JPs annually
• If a parish could not meet its poor relief costs, other parishes were to be asked to contribute

Treatment of different categories of poor:

1. Impotent poor (unable to work): to receive relief either in their own homes (known as 'outdoor' relief) or in almshouses

2. Able-bodied poor (capable of work): to be given work to do in poorhouses

3. Persistent vagrants and beggars: to be sent to houses of correction

How serious was the crisis?

The authorities certainly perceived the 1590s as a period of acute crisis. The combination of harvest failures, soaring prices, collapsing real wages, rising mortality rates, food riots and the Oxfordshire rising all suggested that the social order might collapse. The government's harsh responses - particularly to the Oxfordshire rising - and its extensive legislative programme in 1597 and 1601 demonstrate how seriously the threat was taken.

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