Factions in the 1590s (Edexcel A-Level History): Revision Notes
Factions in the 1590s
The development of faction in the 1590s
The death of Elizabeth's trusted advisers
Between 1588 and 1591, a significant generational shift occurred at Elizabeth's court. Many of the queen's most trusted advisers and courtiers, who had served her since the beginning of her reign, died in quick succession:
- Earl of Leicester (1588)
- Walter Mildmay (1589)
- Francis Walsingham (1590)
- Christopher Hatton (1591)
This left only William Cecil (Lord Burghley) from the older generation of councillors. Burghley himself was ageing and in increasingly poor health, eventually dying in August 1598.
This rapid succession of deaths removed nearly an entire generation of experienced advisers who had guided Elizabeth for decades. The loss of these trusted councillors created a power vacuum at court that would be filled by a new, more ambitious generation with different priorities and loyalties.
The new generation
The old guard was replaced by an ambitious new group of courtiers. This new generation perhaps lacked the same sense of loyalty to and understanding of the queen that the previous generation had possessed, having grown up with her. Elizabeth herself was ageing (she was in her mid-50s by 1589, already an impressive age by contemporary standards), yet she would survive for another 14 years until 1603.
The succession issue as a source of factional rivalry
Elizabeth had remained unmarried and childless throughout her reign. As she aged, the question of who would succeed her became increasingly prominent in court politics. Elizabeth consistently refused to name a successor, even on her deathbed. Her reasoning was strategic: she feared that any named successor would become a figurehead for plots against her.
Elizabeth's refusal to name a successor did not prevent those around her from planning for the succession. Securing the succession for their preferred candidate became a major source of rivalry between the factions that formed in the 1590s. Faction leaders saw this as a way to ensure their continuing power and influence at court after Elizabeth's death.
Additional sources of factional division
The factions were also divided over:
- Military strategy against Spain - what tactics to employ
- Whether to continue fighting the war with Spain at all
The rival factions competed for position at court and in the Privy Council. Access to the queen was vital for faction leaders attempting to secure key appointments for their followers. Elizabeth's natural cautiousness meant she was often reluctant to commit herself to decisions, but this only increased the pressure from those seeking her favour and patronage.
The competition for access to Elizabeth was not merely about personal advancement. Control over who could speak to the queen directly meant control over which issues reached her attention and how they were presented, giving faction leaders enormous influence over policy decisions.
The factions of the 1590s: Cecil versus Essex
Two main factions developed in the 1590s, centred around William Cecil and his son Robert on one side, and Robert Devereux, Earl of Essex on the other.
The Cecil faction
William Cecil, Lord Burghley, was planning not only for Elizabeth's succession but also for his own. He hoped to pass his power and position to his younger son, Robert.
Robert Cecil was physically small and had a deformed spine - Elizabeth affectionately called him her "little elf". Despite his physical limitations, he was:
- A talented administrator
- A shrewd and crafty politician
- Determined to secure his position as Elizabeth's chief minister
- Strategic in enhancing his standing with James VI of Scotland, Elizabeth's most likely successor
Born around 1563, Robert Cecil's main governmental experience before the 1590s was as an MP. His father put considerable pressure on Elizabeth to advance Robert's career. In 1591, the queen:
- Knighted the younger Cecil
- Admitted him to the Privy Council (making him the second-youngest person in Elizabeth's reign to receive this honour)
Elizabeth promoted Robert Cecil partly out of respect for his father, but also because he agreed with her preferred military strategy - a cautious, defensive war against Spain. Both Cecils supported this approach.
Robert Cecil hoped to be appointed as the queen's secretary, a position held by Walsingham until his death in 1590. However, Elizabeth left the position vacant until 1596, when Robert Cecil finally achieved his aim. This delay demonstrated Elizabeth's continued control over appointments, despite the factional pressures.
Key positions held by William Cecil:
- Lord Treasurer
- Master of the Court of Wards (which controlled estates and custody of minors - a rich source of patronage)
- Acting secretary (until 1596)
After 1596, when Robert Cecil became secretary, the Cecils tightened their hold on government still further. The combination of Lord Treasurer, Master of the Court of Wards, and secretary gave the Cecil faction unprecedented control over both the administration of government and the distribution of royal patronage.
The Essex faction
Robert Devereux, Earl of Essex represented a very different type of courtier and politician.
Background and connections:
- Member of an old noble family, representing the traditional feudal nobility
- Stepson of the Earl of Leicester
- Saw himself as the natural successor to both Leicester and Sir Philip Sidney (whose widow he married)
- Leicester had been Elizabeth's favourite and had advocated an offensive war against Spain in support of Protestant interests abroad
Personal characteristics:
Roughly the same age as Robert Cecil (Essex was born in 1565), he was dramatically different in both appearance and temperament:
- Tall, handsome and athletic
- Arrogant, impulsive and easily angered
- Based his reputation on military prowess
- Prepared to fight duels to defend his honour
- Built up a military following
- Sought military success abroad
The contrast between Essex and Robert Cecil could not have been more striking. Where Cecil was small, physically weak, and relied on administrative skill, Essex was tall, athletic, and built his reputation on military achievement. Where Cecil was cautious and calculating, Essex was impulsive and quick to anger. These personality differences would shape their political rivalry throughout the 1590s.
Political approach:
Essex tried to court popular opinion as a "man of the people", which caused him difficulties, particularly when he appeared to challenge Elizabeth's own popularity and power. As a favourite of Elizabeth, he was prepared to flatter and entertain her. Anthony Bagot, a friend of Essex, wrote that when Elizabeth was abroad (out in public), nobody was near her but Essex, and at night, Essex played cards or other games with her until the birds sang in the morning.
Dependence on royal patronage:
Elizabeth kept Essex under close control. Although he was a member of the nobility, he was not wealthy and relied on the queen for patronage to support himself and his followers. In 1588, he was given the lucrative monopoly on sweet wines, which had previously belonged to Leicester.
Essex was appointed to the Privy Council in 1593, which allowed him to argue for a more aggressive military policy. However, crucially, Essex always remained reliant on the queen for his power and influence. He did not have the resources to build up a following in the localities, and his power was based at court.
Comparing the positions of Cecil and Essex
The Cecil advantage:
The Cecils were able to build up power much more effectively than Essex, mainly because William Cecil monopolised so many key positions in government. This dominance of government positions by the Cecils led to Essex's increasingly desperate attempts to enhance his own power.
Essex's strengths and weaknesses:
Essex attracted:
- Some noble support
- The talented Bacon brothers (Francis and Anthony)
- At least 12 deputy lieutenants into his faction
- Military men who served him during campaigns abroad
However, he lacked supporters in the most influential positions of government - the Council, the household and the localities - especially compared with the Cecils.
Essex portrayed himself as a man of action who thought it legitimate for the nobility to use violence to defend their honour and achieve their political aims. He was a Lord Lieutenant, and had military support, which was potentially dangerous. However, crucially, Essex did not have the support of his fellow Lord Lieutenants, who were ultimately in charge of military musters.
The Cecils, meanwhile, used their influence to gain supporters both in the Council and in key positions in the Council of the North, which enhanced their military support base.
Factional membership
The Cecil faction
Leaders:
- William Cecil, Lord Burghley (died 1598) - Lord Treasurer, Master of the Court of Wards, acting secretary until 1596
- Sir Robert Cecil - Privy Councillor from 1591, secretary from 1596
Key supporters:
- Charles, Lord Howard of Effingham - Lord High Admiral from 1585, created Earl of Nottingham in 1597
- Sir John Stanhope - Treasurer of the Chamber from 1596
- Henry Brooke, Lord Cobham - Warden of the Cinque Ports from 1597
- Thomas Cecil - William's elder son, president of the Council of the North from 1599
- George Carey, Lord Hunsdon - Lord Chamberlain and Privy Councillor from 1597
- Sir Thomas Heneage - Privy Councillor from 1587
The Essex faction
Leader:
- Robert Devereux, Earl of Essex - Master of the Horse from 1588, Privy Councillor from 1593
Key supporters:
- Roger Manners, Earl of Rutland - son-in-law of Sir Philip Sidney
- Sir Robert Sidney - younger brother of Sir Philip Sidney
- Charles Blount, Lord Mountjoy
- Sir William Knollys - Privy Councillor from 1596
- Roger, Lord North - Privy Councillor from 1596
- Anthony and Francis Bacon
Supporters in 1601:
- Henry Wriothesley, Earl of Southampton
- Edward Russell, Earl of Bedford
Comparing the factional membership lists reveals an important imbalance. The Cecil faction included holders of several of the most important administrative and financial positions in government, while Essex's supporters were predominantly military men and members of the traditional nobility with fewer positions in the bureaucratic machinery of government.
How did the growth of faction lead to political instability?
Early cooperation (before 1595)
Before 1595, the Cecils and Essex did occasionally co-operate. For example, in 1591-92, they worked together to pressure Elizabeth to intervene in France. Their aim was to prevent Spanish Catholic forces from gaining more territory and posing an invasion threat to England.
Growing tensions (1593-1594)
Between 1593 and 1594, relations deteriorated to some extent. Both sides put forward rival candidates for two important positions:
- The secretaryship
- The post of Attorney General
The secretaryship: Elizabeth refused to make an appointment, but in reality the Cecils were doing much of the work associated with the post.
The Attorney General: The Cecils managed to secure the appointment of their man, Sir Edward Coke.
These events undoubtedly caused Essex to resent the Cecils' influence and power. However, Essex was able to prove his worth to Elizabeth in 1593 when the spy network he had been nurturing discovered a plot by the queen's doctor, Antonio Lopez, to murder her.
Worked Example: The Lopez Plot (1593)
In 1593, Essex demonstrated the value of maintaining his own intelligence network:
Step 1: Discovery Essex's spies uncovered evidence that Dr. Roderigo Lopez, Elizabeth's personal physician, was involved in a Spanish plot to poison the queen.
Step 2: Investigation Essex pursued the investigation despite initial skepticism from both the queen and Robert Cecil, who thought the accusations were fabricated to enhance Essex's position.
Step 3: Outcome The plot was proven genuine, Lopez was executed for treason, and Essex gained significant credit with the queen for protecting her life. This success temporarily strengthened Essex's position at court and demonstrated that he could be useful beyond his military capabilities.
The rivalry becomes dangerous (1596)
The rivalry between the factions began to develop into something much more serious in 1596.
Essex's Cadiz expedition:
- Essex was sent on a military expedition against the Spanish at Cadiz
- He was largely successful, but could have achieved more
- While he was away, the Cecils tightened their grip on the Council and government
- Robert Cecil was finally appointed secretary
- This demonstrated the importance of having daily access to the queen
Quarrel over profits: Essex then quarrelled with the queen over the division of profits from his campaign. Not surprisingly, Essex came off worst and blamed Robert Cecil, who had been asked to make an inventory of the Spanish goods. This incident highlighted a critical vulnerability in Essex's position: whenever he left court to pursue military glory, the Cecils could consolidate their power in his absence.
Further tensions (1597)
More tensions emerged in 1597 when the old Lord Cobham died and the offices he had held became available. These included the valuable and influential posts of:
- Lord Chamberlain
- The lord lieutenancy of Kent
Essex lobbied the queen on behalf of his follower Robert Sidney, but Sidney was passed over in favour of Cobham's son and heir.
Failed Spanish campaign: Essex planned another campaign against Spain in 1597, but this was unsuccessful and led to the queen's displeasure.
The precedence crisis: Essex was particularly angered by the promotion of Charles Lord Howard, a Cecil supporter, to the rank of Earl of Nottingham. According to the rules of precedence (the formal ranking of nobles), this meant that Howard now outranked Essex.
Worked Example: The Precedence Crisis (1597)
The crisis over Howard's promotion illustrates how deeply questions of honour and status mattered to the Elizabethan nobility:
Step 1: The promotion Charles Lord Howard was created Earl of Nottingham in recognition of his naval service, particularly his role in defeating the Spanish Armada.
Step 2: The insult Under the rules of precedence, an earldom created in 1597 would outrank Essex's earldom (created in 1572) because Howard's was more senior. This meant Howard would walk before Essex in processions and take precedence at court ceremonies.
Step 3: Essex's reaction Essex, as a member of the traditional nobility, was furious about this perceived slight to his honour. He challenged the earl to a duel before withdrawing from court in a rage.
Step 4: The resolution Essex's pride was eventually soothed with the position of Earl Marshal, which gave him higher precedence. However, the incident showed both the growing tensions at court as a result of faction and Essex's tendency to react violently when his honour was challenged.
Understanding the development of faction
Patronage and power: Members of the nobility and gentry who wanted to advance their careers attempted to seek the support of either the Cecils or Essex as patrons. At the same time, the Cecils competed with Essex for power, influence and access to patronage.
Building a following: Both factions needed to build up a following to support them in the Council, at court and in the localities. They worked to attract potential clients by securing the appointments they desired.
The court as the centre of power: These rival groupings formed at court, which was the centre of power and patronage because it allowed access to the queen - the ultimate source of all grants of land, office and power.
Timeline of polarisation: These groupings began to form in the early 1590s, though they remained quite fluid until 1595, when positions began to polarise significantly.
The shift from fluid cooperation to rigid polarisation after 1595 marked a crucial turning point. Before this date, courtiers could work with both factions depending on the issue. After 1595, the rivalry became so intense that most had to choose a side, creating a divided court and government that would ultimately prove dangerous for Essex.
Elizabeth's role in factional politics
Elizabeth did not lose control of her government and councillors in the 1590s. She had always followed a strategy of balancing the views of her Council by appointing men with differences of opinion. In the 1570s and 1580s, for example, Leicester and Cecil had disagreed about England's foreign policy.
Elizabeth was not prepared to give in to all the demands that the factions placed on her. However, her caution and reluctance to make decisions did not reduce the rivalry between the factions as she had hoped. Instead, both sides tried to get their own candidates appointed to positions, which increased the tension between them.
Elizabeth's management strategy, which had worked successfully with Leicester and Cecil in earlier decades, proved less effective with the newer generation. The stakes had become higher with the succession issue looming, and both Essex and the Cecils were more desperate to secure their positions for the post-Elizabeth era. The queen's traditional balancing act inadvertently fueled the rivalry rather than containing it.
Key Points to Remember:
-
Faction developed in the 1590s following the death of Elizabeth's old advisers (1588-1591) and the emergence of an ambitious new generation of courtiers.
-
Two main factions formed: the Cecil faction (led by William and Robert Cecil) and the Essex faction (led by Robert Devereux, Earl of Essex).
-
The Cecils were more powerful because William Cecil monopolised key government positions (Lord Treasurer, Master of the Court of Wards, acting secretary), while Essex relied heavily on the queen's favour and lacked a strong following in government.
-
The succession issue fuelled rivalry, as both factions sought to secure the succession for their preferred candidate to ensure their continued power after Elizabeth's death.
-
Factional rivalry escalated from 1595-1596, moving from occasional cooperation to dangerous political instability, particularly after Essex's 1596 Cadiz expedition and the 1597 precedence crisis with the Earl of Nottingham.
-
Elizabeth's balancing strategy proved less effective with the new generation, as the looming succession crisis and higher stakes made both factions more desperate and less willing to compromise.