The Anglo-Spanish Conflict Between 1589 and 1603 (Edexcel A-Level History): Revision Notes

The Anglo-Spanish Conflict Between 1589 and 1603

Introduction: the situation after 1588

By 1589, England had already defeated the first Spanish Armada in 1588, though this victory was due more to bad weather than English tactics alone. The execution of Mary, Queen of Scots in 1587 had removed a major Catholic rival to Elizabeth and eliminated a focal point for Catholic plots against her rule. However, the conflict with Spain was far from over.

Spanish intervention in France, 1589-1595

Henry of Navarre becomes King Henry IV

In 1589, a major crisis erupted in France when the Protestant Henry of Navarre became King Henry IV of France. This was completely unacceptable to French Catholics, particularly the powerful French Catholic League, who could not tolerate a Protestant monarch. Philip II of Spain had already been providing financial support to the Catholic League, but Henry's accession prompted him to take direct military action.

Philip II's strategic aims

Philip II's intervention in France was driven by several interconnected objectives:

• Defeat Henry IV and the Protestant cause: Philip wanted to help the Catholic League overthrow the Protestant king
• Weaken England's allies: Henry IV was allied with both the Dutch Protestant rebels and England, so defeating him would isolate Elizabeth
• Expand Spanish power: Philip may have planned to place his daughter, the Infanta Isabella, on the French throne
• Control the European coastline: If successful, Spain would have controlled the entire coastline from Spain to the Netherlands, creating an ideal launching point for an invasion of England

Spanish military campaigns

Philip II committed substantial military resources to France:

• In 1590, he sent 3,500 troops to Brittany
• He ordered Spanish troops in the Netherlands, led by the Duke of Parma, to gather on the northern French border
• Between 1590 and 1596, Spanish forces launched major campaigns into Flanders from their Netherlands base

These campaigns represented a serious and sustained military threat to both France and England.

English intervention and support

Elizabeth was persuaded by her counsellors that England had to support Henry IV to prevent Spanish domination of France. She provided both financial and military assistance:

Financial aid:

• $35,000 sent to Henry IV in 1589
• Another $10,000 in 1590

Military support:

• 4,000 troops sent to France in 1589
• 3,000 troops sent to Brittany in 1591
• 9,200 troops sent in 1592-93
• 3,000 troops sent under the Earl of Essex to besiege Spanish-held Rouen in 1591

The cost and outcome of intervention

English intervention was extremely costly in both lives and money. However, by 1595, the strategic situation had changed significantly in England's favour:

• Henry IV converted to Catholicism in 1593, famously declaring that "Paris is worth a Mass". This pragmatic move helped him gain acceptance among French Catholics
• Henry defeated the resistance led by the Catholic League and Spanish troops
• In 1595, he rallied French nationalism by declaring war on Spain
• This restored the balance of power in Europe, as Spain now faced a united France rather than a divided one
• The Dutch also achieved major successes against Spanish troops in the northern provinces of the Netherlands by 1594

The threat of Spanish European domination had declined significantly, though the war continued throughout the rest of Elizabeth's reign.

English naval attacks on Spanish interests

The joint-stock enterprise funding model

Apart from land wars in Europe, English ships also attacked Spanish interests on the Iberian Peninsula and in the New World. However, these attacks had mixed success due to fundamental problems with how they were funded and organized.

The English government lacked sufficient resources to fund military expeditions properly. Combined with Elizabeth's cautious approach, she was unwilling to commit all her forces to an all-out attack. Instead, expeditions were funded as a joint-stock enterprise. This meant:

• The queen, members of the nobility, and wealthy merchants all contributed to the costs
• All investors expected a share of the profits
• Profits were often prioritized over strategic military advantage
• This business-like approach undermined military effectiveness

Problems with Elizabeth's command

Elizabeth faced additional challenges in controlling military operations. As a woman, her commands and wishes were often ignored by her military captains, who would simply do whatever they wanted. This lack of discipline meant that English military expeditions never fully achieved their aims.

The 1589 expedition: a case study in failure

The 1596 Cadiz raid: partial success

Not all missions ended in complete failure. In 1596, Essex led a joint mission with the Dutch to attack Cadiz in southern Spain. This raid achieved some success:

• Two Spanish ships were destroyed
• Two Spanish ships were captured
• Cadiz itself was temporarily captured
• These exploits made Essex a temporary hero

However, even this "success" was a missed opportunity:

• No attempt was made to attack the main Spanish fleet at Lisbon
• The treasure ships from the West Indies were not captured
• The strategic advantage was not fully exploited

Privateering and its limitations

Elizabeth also encouraged privateers (private individuals authorized to attack enemy shipping) to attack and loot Spanish vessels. However, this strategy was not particularly successful for several reasons:

Limited success

Individual Spanish ships were captured, and significant treasure was taken:

• $400,000 worth of treasure was captured between 1589 and 1591

However, there were serious problems:

• There was no coordination between the different English privateers
• Spanish shipping was increasingly well guarded by warships
• Spanish vessels were able to slip through the net of uncoordinated English attacks

Lack of discipline

Even when English privateers were successful, poor discipline undermined the benefits:

• In 1592, English sailors took $100,000 worth of goods from a Spanish ship for their personal profit
• Although $141,120 worth of goods remained, only $80,000 reached the English government's treasury
• This was nowhere near enough to fund the high cost of the war against Spain

The combination of poor coordination and lack of discipline meant that privateering never provided the financial or strategic benefits England needed.

The overall impact of English tactics

English tactics, largely driven by insufficient funding and Elizabeth's cautious approach, meant that:

England could not mount a decisive challenge to Spain:

• Limited resources prevented all-out attacks
• The joint-stock funding model prioritized profit over strategy
• Male commanders often ignored Elizabeth's orders

But England did not lose the war completely:

• Elizabeth's caution meant she never risked committing all troops or resources in one campaign
• This defensive approach prevented complete defeat
• English tactics were enough to stop Spain from winning

Spanish counter-attacks and invasion threats

The continuing Spanish threat

Although the defeat of the Armada in 1588 was celebrated as a great God-given victory by the English, this did not stop Spain from rebuilding its navy and planning further invasion attempts throughout the 1590s. The combination of English attacks on Spain and its shipping led to Spanish counter-attacks, creating invasion scares and panic in England, especially on the south coast.

The 1595 Cornwall raid

In 1595, a small Spanish force of about 400 men actually landed at Penzance in Cornwall, making a series of raids. Although they fled when news arrived that a fleet under Drake was approaching, this demonstrated that Spanish forces could successfully reach and land on English soil.

The 1596 and 1597 Armadas

More seriously, Philip II sent two major invasion fleets:

• 1596 Armada: got as far as the English Channel before being destroyed by bad weather
• 1597 Armada: also reached the English Channel and was destroyed by storms rather than English military action

The 1597 mission was specifically intended to support the Irish rebels, who at this point were gaining the upper hand in their struggle against English rule.

The threat continues under Philip III

Although Philip II died in 1598, the war continued under his successor, Philip III. The Spanish threat persisted and even intensified:

• In 1601, a Spanish fleet reached Ireland
• Spanish troops and guns were successfully landed there
• Although this invasion was eventually defeated, it represented a serious escalation

The Spanish-Irish Catholic alliance

The linking of Spanish and Irish Catholic interests posed a grave threat to English security for several reasons:

• Ireland was strategically important, providing a potential back door for invasion of England
• Irish Catholic rebels were already fighting English rule
• Spanish military support could tip the balance against England
• A successful Spanish-Irish alliance could establish a Catholic stronghold on England's doorstep

The social and economic impact on England

The prolonged war with Spain had devastating effects on English society and the economy:

Financial strain

• The costs of maintaining armies in France, the Netherlands, and Ireland were enormous
• Naval expeditions required massive investment but often returned little profit
• The joint-stock funding model failed to generate sufficient returns
• The government's treasury was constantly under pressure

Loss of life

• The 1589 expedition alone cost 11,000 lives
• Ongoing campaigns in multiple theatres meant continuous casualties
• This loss of manpower affected families and communities across England

Social discontent

• The escalating costs and casualties led to increasing discontent among the English population
• Criticism of Elizabeth's regime grew as the war dragged on without resolution
• The government became increasingly overstretched and under pressure

Undermined stability

The war undermined both the social and economic stability of England. Combined with the continuing threat of Spanish Catholic invasion against Protestant England, this created a period of sustained crisis that tested Elizabeth's government to its limits.

Key Takeaways