Challenges Between 1509 and 1588 (Edexcel A-Level History): Revision Notes

Challenges Between 1509 and 1588

Introduction

The Tudor dynasty faced significant challenges to their authority and legitimacy throughout the 16th century. From weak claims to the throne to succession crises and questions about female rule, Tudor monarchs had to constantly work to secure their position and maintain stability. This period saw England transform from a kingdom recovering from civil war into a more stable nation, but this journey was far from smooth.

The weakness of the Tudor claim to the throne in 1509

Henry VII's uncertain inheritance

When Henry VIII peacefully succeeded his father in 1509, it appeared that the Tudor dynasty had established itself securely. However, this masked a fundamental weakness: the Tudors were a new dynasty with a questionable claim to the throne. The period from 1455 to 1487 had been marked by civil war between two rival families—the Yorkists and the Lancastrians—who both claimed the right to rule England.

Henry VII had won the crown at the Battle of Bosworth in 1485, where he defeated the last Yorkist king, Richard III. Although contemporary belief held that victory in battle showed God's approval of the winner, the Tudor claim remained weak for several reasons.

The problem of primogeniture

Henry VII inherited his claim through his mother, Margaret Beaufort, who was descended from King Edward III. However, this descent came through the Beaufort line, which originated from the illegitimate children of Edward III's third son, John of Gaunt. These children had been legitimised but only on the condition that they and their descendants would never claim the throne.

The succession at this time was determined by primogeniture—the principle that the throne should pass to the eldest legitimate son. Under this system, a woman could transmit a claim to the throne, but such a claim was considered weaker than one transmitted by a man. This made Henry VII's position vulnerable, as he inherited his claim through a woman, and that woman's ancestors had been barred from royal succession.

Strengthening the dynasty

Henry VII worked to strengthen his family's claim through strategic actions:

• Marriage alliance: He married Elizabeth of York, the eldest surviving daughter of the Yorkist king Edward IV. This united the Yorkist and Lancastrian bloodlines, giving their children a stronger claim to the throne through combined royal heritage.

• International marriages: Henry VII enhanced his children's legitimacy through prestigious foreign alliances. His eldest son Arthur married Catherine of Aragon, daughter of the Spanish monarchs, though Arthur's death in 1502 was a severe blow to the dynasty.

• Survival and succession: Despite facing several challenges from rival claimants related to the Yorkist kings, Henry VII survived and was able to pass the throne to his remaining son, the future Henry VIII, in 1509 without opposition.

The succession crisis under Henry VIII

The urgent need for a male heir

As the son of a usurper, Henry VIII understood that he needed to consolidate the Tudor dynasty by producing a surviving son. In the 16th century, having multiple sons was advisable because diseases frequently killed children and teenagers. Henry himself had been the second son of Henry VII—his elder brother Arthur (the original heir) had died aged 15 in 1502.

Catherine of Aragon and the succession

Henry VIII married his brother's widow, Catherine of Aragon, as soon as he became king in 1509. Although Catherine was nearly seven years older than Henry (she was 24 to his 17), there was initially no reason to expect problems. However, between 1510 and 1518, Catherine suffered a devastating series of miscarriages and infant deaths.

On 1 January 1511, Catherine gave birth to a living son, also named Henry. The nation rejoiced and the king was delighted, but tragedy struck when the child died just three weeks later. Catherine's only surviving child, born in 1516, was a daughter, Princess Mary. Her last pregnancy in 1518 produced a girl who lived for only a few hours.

In an age when it was universally accepted that only a man could rule effectively, this lack of a male heir was potentially catastrophic for Henry and the Tudor dynasty. Women were not considered fit to rule, and the only precedent for female rule—the 12th century Queen Matilda—had resulted in vicious civil war.

The White Rose Party: ongoing Yorkist threats

While Henry VIII struggled to produce a male heir, rival claimants from the Yorkist line posed a constant threat. These descendants of the 15th century Yorkist kings were sometimes known as the White Rose Party (the white rose was the badge of the Yorkists). These claimants actually had strong claims to the throne, which made them particularly dangerous while Henry lacked a legitimate male heir.

Henry dealt with these threats harshly, particularly after the serious rebellion known as the Pilgrimage of Grace in 1536 and further unrest in 1541. The remaining Yorkists were either executed or forced to flee the country:

Edmund and Richard de la Pole

• Nephews of Edward IV and Richard III
• Edmund was imprisoned by Henry VII and executed by Henry VIII in 1513
• Richard died in exile at the Battle of Pavia in 1525

Margaret Pole (Countess of Salisbury) and her sons

• Descended from George, Duke of Clarence, brother of Edward IV and Richard III
• Connected to the conservative faction at court
• Margaret and her son Henry were arrested as part of the 'Exeter Conspiracy' in 1538
• Henry Pole was executed in 1539, Margaret was executed in 1541
• Reginald Pole was forced into exile, where he served the pope and survived several assassination attempts by Cromwell's agents
• Reginald only returned to England in 1554 when Mary I became queen

Henry Courtenay (Marquess of Exeter) and his son Edward

• Descended from Catherine, a daughter of Edward IV
• Henry was arrested for allegedly conspiring with Reginald Pole to create a Catholic rebellion in 1538
• He was executed in 1539
• Edward remained in prison until Mary I's reign

Edward Stafford (Duke of Buckingham)

• Descended from Edward III
• Executed for treason in 1521

Henry's search for a son through multiple marriages

Henry's desperate need for a male heir drove his marital history and had profound consequences for English religion and politics.

Anne Boleyn

Henry married Anne in 1533 when she was already pregnant. He hoped she would provide the son he desperately needed, but instead she gave birth to a healthy daughter, Princess Elizabeth. In annulling his marriage to Catherine, Henry had argued it had never been legal, making Mary illegitimate and unable to inherit. The Act of Succession (1534) confirmed this and named Elizabeth as heir.

However, Anne's subsequent miscarriages, including a deformed male foetus in January 1536, helped bring about her downfall. Henry annulled his marriage to Anne and passed a second Act of Succession (1536), which made Elizabeth illegitimate too. Anne was executed on charges of adultery.

Jane Seymour

Henry married Jane Seymour immediately after Anne Boleyn's execution. In 1537, Jane finally gave birth to Henry's only surviving son, Edward, but she died shortly after childbirth. At age 46, Henry had finally secured a male heir—28 years after his first marriage. However, he had no more children despite three more marriages.

The Acts of Succession

The succession crisis led Henry to pass three different Acts of Succession:

1. 1534: Made Mary illegitimate and named Elizabeth as heir after any future sons of Henry and Anne Boleyn

2. 1536: Made Elizabeth illegitimate and established Edward as heir

3. 1544: Restored Mary and Elizabeth as heirs after Edward (though not reversing their illegitimacy), attempting to shore up the Tudor succession in case of Edward's early death

The role of faction at the Tudor court

Understanding factions

Because Tudor monarchs had personal control over government, one route to power and influence was gaining personal access to the ruler. This led to the formation of factions—informal groupings of people who shared common aims and who sought to gain power and access to the monarch.

A faction consisted of members who worked together to:

• Promote their shared interests (such as religious reform or conservatism)
• Gain informal influence through the royal household (especially the Privy Chamber)
• Secure formal positions in government (such as places on the Council)

Religious factions in Henry VIII's later reign

During the 1530s and 1540s, factions often formed along religious lines:

The conservative faction

• Favoured traditional Catholic forms of worship
• Led by the Duke of Norfolk, his son the Earl of Surrey, and Stephen Gardiner (Bishop of Winchester)
• Wanted to limit or reverse religious reforms

The reformer faction

• Favoured more Protestant reforms to the English Church
• Included Edward Seymour (Earl of Hertford, Jane Seymour's brother) and Thomas Cranmer (Archbishop of Canterbury)
• Wanted to continue and deepen religious changes

Impact of factions on governance

These competing factions attempted to influence Henry by:

• Placing their supporters in the Privy Chamber (where they had direct access to the king)
• Securing positions on the Council
• Trying to control appointments and royal decision-making

The succession crisis of 1547: Henry VIII's will

Henry's declining health and the problem of a minor heir

The 1540s were increasingly dominated by uncertainty caused by Henry VIII's deteriorating health. A jousting injury to his leg had led to an infected sore that never healed. As Henry became less mobile, it became apparent that he would likely be succeeded by a minor—an underage child who would need some form of protectorate or regency council until old enough to rule.

The manipulation of Henry's will

By 1546, Henry's declining health meant he could no longer effectively control the rival factions in his Chamber and Council. This led to political instability that threatened the Tudor succession. The balance of power had swung in favour of the reformer faction led by the Earl of Hertford.

Hertford ensured that men loyal to him were placed in key positions in the Privy Chamber, where they had direct access to the king. These men included:

• Sir John Gates
• Sir Anthony Denny (Gates' brother-in-law)

Together, Gates and Denny controlled access to the dry stamp—a device that could reproduce Henry VIII's signature on documents. The stamp had a raised impression of the signature that could be pressed into paper and then inked in.

Key provisions of Henry's will

Influenced by the dominant reformer faction, Henry was persuaded to change his will in December 1546:

1. Regency council: Henry created a regency council of 16 men who would rule on behalf of his son, deliberately avoiding naming one protector who would rule the country alone.

2. Full power clause: The will was changed to give the regency council "full power and authority" to make any decisions necessary for governing the realm.

3. Unfulfilled gifts clause: A further addition allowed the council to make gifts after Henry's death which he had "granted, made... or promised."

Political manoeuvring after Henry's death

When Henry died on 28 January 1547, a series of political manoeuvres took place that showed how easily the situation could be manipulated:

• Secret death: Henry's death was kept secret for three days while behind-the-scenes negotiations occurred
• Control of Edward: Hertford secured custody and control of the young King Edward
• Protector appointed: The regency council voted to make Hertford Edward's protector
• Rewards distributed: Under the "unfulfilled gifts" clause, Hertford's supporters received substantial rewards:
  • Hertford became Duke of Somerset
  • Lisle became Earl of Warwick
  • William Parr (Queen Catherine's brother) became Marquess of Northampton
  • Crown lands worth £27,053 were granted to Hertford and his supporters

Edward VI and the succession crisis of 1553

Edward's health and the lack of an heir

Historians once believed Edward was a sickly child, but recent scholarship has shown he was generally healthy, participating in typical princely activities like sword-fighting, hunting and riding. However, in early 1553, Edward fell ill with a feverish cold that rapidly developed into incurable pulmonary tuberculosis.

At age 16, Edward had not married or had a son of his own. Even worse, he had no close male heir—all his surviving closest relatives were women. Under the terms of the Act of Succession (1544) and Henry VIII's will, the throne should pass first to Mary, then to Elizabeth, then to the daughters of Henry VIII's youngest sister Mary and her husband Charles Brandon—Frances and Eleanor.

Edward's 'device for the succession'

In early 1553, with the help of the Duke of Northumberland (formerly Earl of Warwick, who had replaced Somerset as Edward's protector in 1550) and his advisers, Edward began drawing up a document known as the 'device for the succession'. This document was written and altered by Edward himself and shows how his plans changed as his illness progressed.

Original plan

Initially, Edward was still hoping to marry and have sons of his own, but he outlined plans if he died childless. He assumed there would be time for either Frances Brandon (Duchess of Suffolk) or her eldest daughter Jane to have a son and heir. His 'device' left the crown to "the Lady Fraunceses heirs males" or "for lack of such issue to the Lady Janes heirs males."

Edward's original plan meant that if he did not have a son, the throne would pass to the son and heir of either Frances or Jane.

Revised plan

By late May 1553, it became clear that Edward was dying and there would be no time for either Frances or Jane to produce a male heir. Edward, again with advice from Northumberland and his supporters, changed his 'device'. He now left the throne to "the Lady Fraunceses heirs males, if she have any such issue before my death to the Lady Jane and her heirs males."

Religious motivations for changing the succession

Both Edward and Northumberland were motivated by religious concerns. By 1553, England had undergone rapid and radical religious changes that had created a fully Protestant Church. Edward, a committed Protestant, knew that if the throne passed to his sister Mary (a committed Catholic), the Reformation would be reversed.

Additionally, under the 1534 Act of Succession, Mary had been declared illegitimate (bastardised). Although Henry VIII had included her in the succession in 1544, he had never formally reversed her illegitimate status. This explains why Edward chose to pass over Mary in 1552.

However, Edward also chose not to leave the throne to Elizabeth, even though she had more Protestant leanings. This was because Edward believed Elizabeth was also illegitimate as a result of the 1536 Act of Succession. In the 16th century, a monarch's birth and parentage had to be unquestionably legitimate. Suspect legitimacy could be exploited by potential rivals and lead to political instability.

Northumberland's role and motivations

Although the 'device' was Edward's own work, there is debate about how much influence Northumberland brought to bear on the young king. Northumberland carefully controlled access to Edward through the Privy Chamber—it is possible that the 'device' was actually dictated to Edward by Sir John Gates, who still controlled the dry stamp.

Northumberland had a great deal to lose if Edward died and either Mary or Elizabeth became queen:

• His power rested on his relationship with Edward
• He had overseen the final stages of the Protestant Reformation
• Under Catholic Mary, he would likely be removed from power at best, or vulnerable to attacks from political opponents at worst
• Under Elizabeth (nearly 20 years old), he would be equally unable to control her as he had her younger brother

While Northumberland was clearly motivated by desire to maintain his power and position, it was ultimately Edward's decision to make Lady Jane Grey his successor.

Mary I's successful claim to the throne in 1553

Mary's active resistance

Despite her brother writing her out of the succession, Mary Tudor gained popular support in 1553 because under the laws of the kingdom and Henry VIII's will, she was the rightful heir to the throne. Mary took an active role in the crisis of July 1553.

Northumberland had told Mary he would support her claim after Edward's death, but spies at court informed her he was lying. Mary and her advisers ensured that Northumberland would not be able to capture her. Instead of riding to London, Mary travelled to her estates in East Anglia, arriving at Kenninghall in Norfolk, where she heard the news of Edward's death.

The growth of popular support

Initially, it did not look likely that Mary would succeed because Northumberland controlled:

• London
• The central offices of government
• The navy

However, Mary attracted significant popular support:

Loyal household supporters

• Members of Mary's own household who hoped to see the return of Catholicism to England
• These supporters brought money, provisions and armed men

East Anglian gentry

• Religiously conservative members of the local gentry such as Sir Henry Bedingfield, who had loyally served Mary's mother Catherine of Aragon

Nobility

• Members of the nobility such as the Earl of Sussex

Local officials

• Although many towns and officials initially followed Northumberland's orders and proclaimed Jane as queen, they began to change allegiance when they saw popular support lay with Mary
• Thomas Cornwallis, the sheriff of Norfolk and Suffolk, initially declared for Jane but changed his mind when he saw popular support for Mary

Northumberland's defeat

Northumberland was forced to leave the relative safety of London to deal with the threat Mary posed. In his absence, the Privy Council (which had initially supported Jane) also began to change its mind:

• 18 July: The Council issued a proclamation for Northumberland's arrest
• 19 July: The Council declared openly for Mary
• 20 July: Northumberland surrendered at Cambridge

16th century attitudes towards female rulers

Contemporary beliefs about women

Sixteenth-century attitudes meant that people commonly believed women were inferior to men. John Knox, the evangelical Protestant opponent of Mary, wrote that the "regiment" (rule) of women was "monstrous" (unnatural). Knox argued that, according to the Bible, women were inferior to men for two reasons:

1. Creation: Women had been created from man (Eve was made from one of Adam's ribs)
2. The Fall: In the Garden of Eden, Eve's temptation of Adam had led to man's fall from grace

According to Knox and many others, women could not be trusted to rule.

The problem of precedent

While English law did not actually forbid a woman from becoming queen in her own right, there were no strong precedents for this:

Queen Matilda (1135)

• The only previous time a woman had inherited the throne and attempted to rule
• She was challenged by her male cousin Stephen
• The result was 18 years of civil war (known as the Anarchy)
• The conflict was only resolved by an agreement that allowed Matilda's son Henry to rule after Stephen's death, but not Matilda herself

Margaret Beaufort

• In the 15th century, Henry VII became king even though his mother Margaret Beaufort (from whom he inherited his claim) was still alive
• This demonstrated that even when a woman had a claim, it would pass to her son rather than be exercised by her

Changed circumstances in 1553

However, in 1553, circumstances were different because there was no alternative male Tudor heir. Even Edward VI and Northumberland had accepted this fact when they created the 'device' that would have put Lady Jane Grey on the throne.

Remember!