Mary's Approach to Marriage (Edexcel A-Level History): Revision Notes
Mary's Approach to Marriage
Introduction: Gender and monarchy in the sixteenth century
In the era of personal monarchy, the roles of king and queen were clearly separated. A king was expected to rule the country, dispense justice, and lead troops into battle. A queen consort (the wife of a king) was expected to be a supportive wife, intercede for peace and mercy, and produce a male heir.
When Mary and later Elizabeth came to the throne, society assumed they would need husbands to perform the traditional "kingly" duties that women were thought incapable of fulfilling. This belief was widespread, as shown by the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V's advice that Mary would need to marry quickly "in order to be supported in the labour of governing and assisted in matters that are not of ladies' capacity."
The Scottish Protestant reformer John Knox expressed extreme views about female rule in his 1558 work First Blast of the Trumpet against the Monstrous Regiment of Women, arguing that female authority was "repugnant to nature" and "contumely to God." Such attitudes created significant challenges for both Mary and Elizabeth as female monarchs.
Mary's decision to marry Philip of Spain
Mary recognised that she needed to marry quickly. At 37 years old, time was running out if she wanted to produce a son and heir who could continue the Catholic reformation she was planning for England.
Why Philip of Spain?
Mary's choice of Philip of Spain was driven by several interconnected factors:
Dynastic considerations:
- Marrying an English nobleman (such as her distant cousin Edward Courtenay) would create jealousy and rivalry at court
- Philip was already a king and her equal in rank, which avoided internal tensions
- Mary was half-Spanish herself, and Philip was her cousin, making it a natural dynastic match
Religious motivations:
- Philip was a devout Catholic who would support Mary's mission to restore Roman Catholicism to England
- This religious alignment was crucial for Mary's planned religious reforms
Foreign policy advantages:
- Spain was England's natural ally as a counterbalance to French power in Europe
- Spain controlled the Netherlands, which was vital for England's cloth trade
- The Spanish alliance would strengthen England's international position
Opposition to the marriage
Despite Mary's determination to marry Philip, she faced significant resistance from multiple quarters:
Opposition from the Privy Council:
- Stephen Gardiner, the Lord Chancellor, opposed the Spanish match
- He supported the alternative marriage to Edward Courtenay
- This internal division weakened Mary's position
Parliamentary concerns:
- When Parliament met in 1553, the Speaker voiced serious concerns about the proposed marriage
- These fears were rooted in assumptions about female rule and male authority
- Parliament worried that Philip would automatically take control of England
- There were fears he might even take Mary abroad
These concerns reveal the particular difficulties Mary faced as a female ruler. Had she been a king marrying a foreign princess, there would have been no fear of the queen consort taking over power. The anxiety about Philip as king consort was entirely a consequence of Mary's gender.
The marriage treaty of 1554
To address Parliament's concerns, Mary and her Council drew up a detailed marriage treaty in 1554 that aimed to protect Mary's authority and English independence. The treaty established strict limitations:
Philip's limited authority:
- Philip would receive the title of king but would not actually rule
- He could only assist Mary in governing
- He had no independent powers
Succession provisions:
- If Mary died first, Philip could not continue ruling England as king
- Don Carlos, Philip's son from his first marriage, had no claim to the English throne
- Only children born to Mary and Philip would inherit the English throne
Protection of English interests:
- Philip could not appoint foreigners to positions in the English government
- England would not be dragged into wars between Spain and France
Impact of the marriage treaty:
The very existence of this treaty, and the specific terms it contained, demonstrate how Mary's gender created unique constitutional challenges. These restrictions would have been unnecessary and unthinkable for a male monarch marrying a foreign princess. The treaty attempted to prevent Philip from exercising the traditional authority expected of a king.
Popular opposition: Wyatt's Rebellion
Despite the marriage treaty's safeguards, popular fears about the Spanish marriage contributed to Sir Thomas Wyatt's rebellion in January 1554. The rebellion, though ultimately unsuccessful, demonstrated widespread concern among the English people about foreign influence and the potential loss of English independence.
The concerns expressed by Parliament, the Council, and the rebels all stemmed from the same source: Mary's gender. Society's assumptions about male authority and female weakness meant that people feared Philip would dominate his wife and, by extension, dominate England.
Comparison: Elizabeth I's approach to marriage
The pressure to marry
When Elizabeth succeeded Mary in 1558, she faced similar expectations. At 25, she was young enough to have children, and everyone assumed she would marry to:
- Produce an heir to continue the Tudor dynasty
- Gain a husband to help her govern
The pressure intensified because Elizabeth was the last Tudor. If she died without an heir, the dynasty would end, potentially causing political instability. This danger became real in 1562 when Elizabeth fell dangerously ill with smallpox, causing panic among her councillors.
Elizabeth's suitors
Elizabeth had several potential husbands, both English and foreign:
English option:
- Robert Dudley, Earl of Leicester (son of the Duke of Northumberland)
- Marrying him would have created tensions at court, similar to the problems Mary had avoided
Foreign suitors:
- Philip of Spain (her former brother-in-law)
- Archduke Charles of the Holy Roman Empire
- Henry, Duke of Anjou (a French prince)
The Anjou marriage was seriously considered as late as 1581, even though Elizabeth was already in her late forties and too old to bear children. However, like all previous negotiations, it came to nothing.
Elizabeth's wariness of marriage
Unlike Mary, Elizabeth showed little interest in actually marrying. In 1566, she angrily rebuked a parliamentary delegation that requested she marry, demonstrating her resistance to this pressure.
Elizabeth appeared to understand better than Mary the problems marriage presented to a female ruler. A husband would expect to exercise authority, potentially undermining her own power. By remaining single, Elizabeth maintained complete control.
The strategic use of marriage prospects
Although Elizabeth chose not to marry, she used the possibility of marriage as a powerful diplomatic tool. Marriage negotiations allowed her to:
- Build alliances with foreign powers
- Keep potential enemies hopeful and friendly
- Gain leverage in international politics
- Buy time when under pressure
The 'Virgin Queen' image
From the late 1570s onwards, Elizabeth deliberately cultivated the image of the 'Virgin Queen'. This served multiple purposes:
Political advantages:
- Presented herself as married to England, devoted to her people
- Created a unique identity that set her apart from other monarchs
- Avoided the pitfalls Mary had experienced with her marriage
Court culture:
- Elizabeth encouraged courtly love at court
- Ambitious young men could gain her favour through personal attraction and flirtation
- Male favourites included Robert Dudley, Sir Christopher Hatton, and Sir Walter Raleigh
Careful management: Elizabeth managed these relationships skilfully, maintaining control while using her gender to her advantage. As the Virgin Queen, she could accept admiration without surrendering authority, turning a potential weakness into a source of power.
The contrasting approaches
Mary's and Elizabeth's different approaches to marriage reflected their different personalities and understanding of female monarchy:
Mary:
- Accepted conventional expectations that she needed a husband
- Chose marriage for dynastic, religious, and political reasons
- Required extensive legal protections to maintain her authority
- Her marriage failed to produce an heir
- Gender remained a constant challenge throughout her reign
Elizabeth:
- Rejected marriage despite intense pressure
- Used marriage prospects as diplomatic tools
- Created a unique identity as the Virgin Queen
- Successfully ruled alone for 45 years
- Turned her gender into an advantage through careful image management
Both queens faced the same fundamental challenge: society's belief that women could not effectively rule alone. Mary attempted to work within these expectations, while Elizabeth found ways to work around them.
Remember!
Key Points to Remember:
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Mary chose to marry Philip of Spain for dynastic reasons (he was her cousin and equal in rank), religious reasons (both devout Catholics), and foreign policy benefits (Spanish alliance).
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The 1554 marriage treaty strictly limited Philip's power, stating he could only assist Mary, could not appoint foreigners to English positions, and could not rule if Mary died first. These restrictions existed solely because Mary was female.
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Opposition to Mary's marriage came from her Council (especially Gardiner), Parliament, and the people (contributing to Wyatt's Rebellion in 1554). All concerns stemmed from fears that Philip would dominate England.
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Elizabeth took a completely different approach by remaining single despite pressure to marry. She used marriage prospects as diplomatic tools while cultivating the 'Virgin Queen' image from the late 1570s.
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Both queens faced unique challenges that male monarchs never encountered. The marriage issue demonstrates how gender shaped political possibilities in sixteenth-century England, with Mary attempting to work within expectations and Elizabeth finding ways to transcend them.