Protestant Influences in England (Edexcel A-Level History): Revision Notes

Protestant Influences in England

Introduction to Protestant influences

Although the term Protestantism was not commonly used before the 1520s, the influences that helped create English Protestantism existed before the break with Rome in the 1530s. However, without Henry VIII's desire for a male heir, which created the circumstances for Protestantism to grow, it is unlikely the English Church would have developed in the way it did. The growth of Protestantism in England was not inevitable but resulted from a combination of long-standing criticisms of the Catholic Church, new religious ideas from continental Europe, and political circumstances that allowed reformers to gain influence.

Protestant influences in England before 1527

Early criticism of the Catholic Church

The Catholic Church in early 16th-century England was by no means weak, but it did face criticism. These criticisms had deep roots stretching back to the late 1300s. A preacher named John Wycliffe and his followers, known as the Lollards, attacked the Church for its corruption and promoted an English version of the Bible. Although the Lollards were swiftly suppressed, the tradition they created continued to feed later anti-clerical and Protestant feeling throughout the following centuries.

By the early 16th century, the English Catholic Church was dominated by the clergy, with lay congregations having little active participation in church services. Services were conducted in Latin rather than English, making them inaccessible to most ordinary people. The congregation was physically separated from the priest by the rood screen, which created a barrier between the laity and clergy. This meant that congregations could see very little of what happened during Mass, further distancing them from the religious experience.

Problems with church practice

Although attendance at Mass was common, the congregation would only receive Communion three times a year, and this was Communion of one kind only - meaning they received only the bread, not the wine. This limited participation in the central ritual of Catholic worship contributed to a sense of distance between ordinary people and their faith.

Issues with clergy quality and morals

The quality of the clergy varied considerably across England. In London, two-thirds of the clergy had university degrees, but in more rural areas many clergy lacked formal education. In the diocese of Norwich, for example, only 256 clergy had a degree out of 1,454 appointed between 1503 and 1528. This meant that some members of the congregation might actually be better educated than their priest, and the quality of preaching and pastoral care varied greatly.

Pluralism was another significant problem - some clergy held multiple positions, which meant they were absent from their parishes. The most famous example was Cardinal Wolsey, who served as Archbishop of York as well as Bishop of Lincoln and Tournai. Wolsey did not even visit York until his fall from power in 1529, demonstrating the extent to which senior clergy could neglect their pastoral duties.

The morals of some clergy were also criticized. Catholic priests were supposed to be celibate, but this vow was sometimes broken. Some priests kept mistresses (called 'concubines') and had illegitimate children. Even Wolsey himself had an illegitimate son, which damaged the Church's moral authority.

Monasteries and wealth

Some monasteries faced criticism for their wealth and low moral standards. Between 1524 and 1529, Wolsey himself investigated and closed down about 30 monastic institutions for these reasons. However, Wolsey's own personal wealth and arrogance also attracted criticism, highlighting the hypocrisy of some Church leaders.

Despite these problems, it is important to note that before 1529, popular criticism of the Church was not linked to attempts to overthrow its power. There were occasional outbursts of anti-clerical feeling, such as the Hunne case of 1511-15, but the Protestant reformation that followed was not inevitable. The Church remained a powerful and central institution in English life.

Protestant influences from the 1520s

The arrival of Lutheran ideas

In the early 16th century, the Catholic Church faced criticism from humanists such as Erasmus, who wanted to reform Church corruption and wealth but did not wish to break away from it entirely. However, the actions of Martin Luther in 1519 led to a movement eventually known as Protestantism, which criticized not only Catholic corruption but also the Church's appearance, doctrine and liturgy.

Luther's ideas began to arrive in England in the 1520s, spread by the import of printed books. The first burnings of heretical books took place in 1521, showing the authorities' concern about these new ideas. The first known Lutheran in England was the friar Robert Barnes, who preached his controversial views at Cambridge in 1525 and was eventually executed for heresy in 1540.

Key Protestant figures at Cambridge and Oxford

Cambridge and Oxford universities became important centres for Protestant thinking. Other Cambridge academics were influenced by Luther's ideas during this period, including several important thinkers and writers:

• William Tyndale and Miles Coverdale both translated and published versions of the English Bible, making scripture accessible to ordinary people
• Hugh Latimer became famous for his preaching and was later martyred under Mary I
• Thomas Cranmer, the future Archbishop of Canterbury, who would play a crucial role in the English Reformation

These early reformers argued for several key changes: greater emphasis on the role of the Bible, which they believed should be accessible to all people; a return to a simpler and less corrupt Church; and they challenged the Catholic Church's teaching on transubstantiation (the belief that bread and wine literally become Christ's body and blood during Mass) and the supreme role of the pope. They claimed there was no biblical precedent for either of these Catholic doctrines.

These ideas gained some influential supporters at Henry VIII's court, including Thomas Cromwell, Sir Anthony Denny, and Anne Boleyn. Their presence at court would prove crucial in enabling Protestant ideas to influence royal policy.

The role of Anne Boleyn

Anne Boleyn played a significant role in promoting Protestant influences at court, despite not having direct power over government. Having spent much of her youth in France, where she received a good education, Anne came to the English court in 1521. By 1524-25, she had attracted Henry VIII's attention. Because Anne refused to become the king's mistress, her role became more significant as Henry fell in love with her. By early 1527, he had promised to marry her.

Anne continued to hold Henry's interest throughout his attempts to annul his marriage to Catherine of Aragon and remained influential until her fall in 1536. However, her influence was increasingly undermined by her inability to produce a living son and heir.

Anne held religiously reformist views. Historian David Starkey argues that she was influenced by French thinkers with similar ideas to Luther, whom she read during her time abroad. Anne showed particular interest in the study of the Bible and owned a copy written in French, not the traditional Latin. She also owned a psalter containing a new, radical French translation of the psalms. The ownership of such books was illegal, but Anne's position at court meant she was immune from prosecution.

The development of Protestant influences, 1529-47

The role of Cranmer and Cromwell

Although Henry VIII was never personally a Protestant and indeed had reformers burnt for heresy, the break with Rome did encourage the development of Protestantism in England. The key years for these developments were 1529 to 1539, when those with reformist sympathies were able to influence the king effectively.

The ideas and actions of reformist sympathizers such as Cranmer and Cromwell were vital in allowing Henry to obtain his annulment and marry Anne Boleyn. They encouraged the idea that the pope had no authority in England and had usurped Henry's power. Henry was receptive to this argument because it aligned with his own ideas about the power of the monarchy and allowed him to increase his control over the Church through the Royal Supremacy.

Thomas Cromwell skillfully exploited anti-clerical feeling in the Reformation Parliament as a way to put pressure on both the pope and the English Church. For example, he drafted the Supplication against the Ordinaries, which criticized clerical abuses. Cromwell also shaped the Royal Supremacy, destroyed the legal power of the pope in England, and pushed the Church in a Protestant direction through his policies.

Popular Protestantism and its spread

Popular Protestantism began to flourish, but only with government encouragement. In 1529, anti-clerical feeling was stirred up by Simon Fish's publication "A Supplication for the Beggars". This pamphlet, which Anne Boleyn reportedly supported, criticized the wealth and corruption of the Catholic Church. It also challenged key Catholic beliefs such as purgatory (the place where souls were purified after death) and the sale of indulgences (payments to reduce time in purgatory).

Protestant ideas were also spread through the preaching campaign and religious changes enforced by Cromwell between 1534 and 1538. In London particularly, Protestant ideas gained a strong foothold. The capital was the centre of trade in heretical and illegal books, and its trading links with the continent encouraged the exchange of more radical ideas.

When the religiously conservative Act of Six Articles was passed in 1539, several hundred Londoners were interrogated by the bishop because they were suspected of breaking the law through their religious beliefs. This demonstrates both the strength of Protestant feeling in London and the government's concern about it.

From London, reformist beliefs spread to counties in the South East such as Kent and Essex, where copies of the English Bible were being used. Reformist sympathizers such as Cranmer and Catherine Parr (Henry's sixth wife) remained present at court, although they had to be cautious about expressing their views openly.

Protestant minority status

Despite these developments, Protestants remained a minority during Henry's reign. The fall of Cromwell in 1540 and the influence of a conservative faction at court led to a religious clampdown. Radicals such as Robert Barnes, who had previously been given a licence to preach, were burnt at the stake.

How did Protestantism develop under Edward VI (1547-53)?

Government-imposed reforms

Under the rule of the Duke of Somerset and the Duke of Northumberland, who governed as regents for the young Edward VI, England took a dramatic step towards Protestantism. The changes imposed by the government between 1547 and 1553 completely altered the appearance and doctrine of parish churches and cathedrals. While these steps caused a Catholic reaction in the Western Revolt in 1549, in other parts of the country Protestantism began to take hold, making it difficult for Mary I to reverse religious changes when she came to the throne.

One important way the Edwardian reforms encouraged Protestant growth was through the repeal of the Act of Six Articles and laws controlling the censorship of books. The result was a huge increase in publication, including 159 radical Protestant works compared to just one Catholic work. This demonstrated the intellectual dominance of Protestant ideas during this period.

The abolition of the chantries in 1547 (institutions where priests said prayers for the dead) was achieved without opposition because popular belief in purgatory had been sufficiently undermined under Henry VIII. After the outbreak of rebellion in 1549, there was no further unrest despite the fact that Northumberland's reforms were even more radical than Somerset's.

The state of the Church by 1553

By Edward's death in 1553, England's churches and services were undoubtedly Protestant in character. However, this did not necessarily mean the population had fully embraced Protestantism. Although chantries had been abolished, services were conducted in English and followed Protestant doctrine, and parish churches had lost most of their decoration and ornaments, England was not yet a fully Protestant country.

The evidence for Protestant commitment is mixed. Although nearly 300 men and women were prepared to face martyrdom for their faith under Mary I, and a further 800 went into exile to avoid persecution, these were minorities of the population. Most people had accepted the changes imposed from above but may not have been deeply committed to Protestant beliefs.

Regional variations in Protestant adoption

As in Henry's reign, the effects of government policy were felt differently in different regions. In London and Kent, Protestantism gained in popularity and became more deeply rooted. However, in Sussex, 40 percent of the gentry remained Catholic until well into Elizabeth's reign. The north of England, especially Lancashire, also remained mostly Catholic throughout this period.

What was Puritanism?

Puritans wanted to live a 'pure' or 'godly' lifestyle based strictly on biblical principles. They were Protestants, but they tended to have more radical beliefs than moderate Protestants. Under Elizabeth I, this group first emerged from among those who had gone into exile to avoid religious persecution under Mary I. While abroad, they had been influenced by more extreme religious ideas, particularly those of John Calvin.

All Puritans thought the Elizabethan Religious Settlement of 1559 was merely a starting point for further reform, not a final settlement. However, Puritans were not a united group with identical views. While some were able to accept and work within the structure and liturgy of the Church of England, others actively tried to change the Settlement, and a small minority tried to reject it altogether.

Puritans tended to emphasize the importance of the Bible as the centre of their faith and believed that all religious practice should be based on biblical precedent.

John Calvin's influence

John Calvin was a radical Protestant thinker whose ideas were adopted in the Swiss city of Geneva. His theology had several distinctive features that influenced English Puritans:

• He emphasized the importance of reading and studying the Bible as the sole source of religious authority
• He supported justification by faith alone - the idea that salvation could be achieved solely through faith in God, not through good works or Church rituals
• He believed in predestination - the idea that God had already decided who would go to heaven and who would be damned, and that this could not be changed by human actions
• He rejected the traditional hierarchy of the Catholic Church, favoring a simpler church structure with greater lay participation

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