The Nature of the Victims (Edexcel A-Level History): Revision Notes
The Nature of the Victims
Gender patterns in the Salem witch-hunt
The Salem witch-hunt followed a pattern common to most witch-hunts of this period: the vast majority of those accused were women. Approximately 80 percent of victims were female, whilst around 20 percent were male. The men who became caught up in the accusations typically had prior connections to women who had already been accused, similar to patterns observed in the East Anglian witch craze.
This gender imbalance reflected broader beliefs about women's supposed vulnerability to the Devil's influence and their perceived moral weakness in Puritan society. In Puritan thinking, women were seen as spiritually weaker and more susceptible to temptation, making them natural targets for witchcraft accusations.
The first three accused women
The initial accusations in Salem provide important insight into the typical characteristics of victims. The first three women accused were Tituba, Sarah Good and Sarah Osborne. Each represented different aspects of marginalization within Salem society, but all were considered outcasts or individuals on the margins of their community.
Sarah Good
Sarah Good exemplified the archetypal vulnerable victim - a social outcast accused of harming children. At 40 years old, she had experienced a dramatic fall from grace:
- Originally from a wealthy family, she had become completely destitute through poor financial decisions and an unsuccessful marriage
- Her entire family was homeless and had been reduced to begging on the streets
- At her trial, even her own husband and daughter gave testimony against her, demonstrating how isolated she had become
- Her execution was postponed because she was pregnant
- Initially denied the accusations but deflected blame onto Sarah Osborne
Sarah Good's poverty and desperate circumstances made her an easy target. In Puritan society, such destitution was often interpreted as evidence of God's disfavour, making it easier to associate her with the Devil. This reflects a fundamental Puritan belief that material success indicated divine blessing, while poverty suggested spiritual corruption.
Sarah Osborne
In contrast to Sarah Good, Sarah Osborne was a well-established widow with considerable social standing. However, she had violated important Puritan social norms:
- She lived openly with an unmarried man named Alexander Osborne, who was an indentured servant from Ireland
- She attempted to disinherit the children from her first marriage, violating expectations about proper family behaviour
- Her behaviour fell significantly short of what was expected in Salem's godly society
Indentured servant: A person contracted to work for another without wages for a fixed period, usually in exchange for passage to the New World. Once this period ended, they gained their freedom. This was the primary means by which labourers arrived in 17th-century New England.
Key pattern in the first accusations
These initial three accused women shared a crucial characteristic: all were outcasts or marginal figures in Salem society. In such a deeply religious community, their low social standing or violation of social norms made them vulnerable to accusations.
The Pattern of Marginalization
Their marginalization was easily interpreted as evidence of association with the Devil. This established a dangerous precedent: once the community accepted that social outcasts could be witches, it became easier to extend accusations to anyone who violated social norms or challenged authority.
Other significant victims
The accusations spread beyond these initial targets to include individuals from various social backgrounds. However, many continued to share certain characteristics, particularly behaviour that challenged Puritan expectations.
Bridget Bishop
Bridget Bishop has been characterized by historians as a woman with an independent mind who embodied qualities that Puritans strongly disapproved of:
- Worked as an innkeeper, running an establishment where drinking and gambling occurred
- Wore clothing that violated Puritan standards of modesty and propriety
- Her independent lifestyle and business activities challenged gender norms
- She became the first person to be tried and executed in the Salem trials
Her case demonstrates how women who operated independently or engaged in activities deemed inappropriate for their gender became targets.
Reverend George Burroughs
Burroughs represents a particularly striking case as the only Puritan minister executed during the Salem trials. His inclusion shows that the accusations could reach even those in positions of religious authority:
- Served as one of three ministers in Salem before Samuel Parris arrived
- Became entangled in local conflicts and disputes
- Had borrowed money from the influential Putnam family that he could not repay
- His financial debts and involvement in community disputes made him vulnerable despite his clerical status
This case reveals that personal conflicts and economic disputes could make even respected religious figures vulnerable to accusations. The fact that a minister could be executed for witchcraft demonstrated that no one was truly safe from the accusations, intensifying the climate of fear in Salem.
Martha Carrier
Court documents reveal Martha Carrier as another woman with an independent and unsubmissive character:
- Described as having a contentious spirit who refused to be submissive
- Had been accused two years before the main trials of causing a smallpox epidemic through witchcraft
- Her previous accusations suggest she had long been viewed with suspicion
- Her defiant personality made her an easy target in a society that demanded female submission
Rebecca Nurse
Rebecca Nurse's case demonstrates that even well-respected community members could fall victim to the accusations. An elderly woman who was highly respected in Salem, her case revealed the overwhelming power of the afflicted girls' testimony.
The Case of Rebecca Nurse: When Reputation Wasn't Enough
Rebecca Nurse's trial demonstrates how political pressure and the testimony of the afflicted girls could override even the strongest community support:
Step 1: Community Support Many friends and neighbours wrote petitions declaring her innocence, providing character testimony.
Step 2: Initial Verdict The jury found her not guilty based on her reputation and the petitions.
Step 3: Pressure to Reconsider Despite the not-guilty verdict, the jury was asked to reconsider their decision.
Step 4: Verdict Changed The jury changed their verdict to guilty, succumbing to pressure.
Step 5: Pardon Granted and Revoked Governor Phips granted her a pardon, but was persuaded by men from Salem to revoke it.
Step 6: Execution She was executed on 19 July 1692.
Her case shows that once accusations gained momentum, even strong community standing offered limited protection against the power of the afflicted girls' testimony and political pressures.
Susannah Martin
The case of Susannah Martin, a 67-year-old widow, reveals how property disputes could underlie witchcraft accusations:
- Accused by both the original afflicted girls and 15 of her neighbours
- Maintained her innocence throughout
- Like Martha Carrier, had a history of previous witchcraft accusations
- Was involved in a lengthy court dispute over her father's inheritance
Carol Karlsen's Interpretation: Property as Motivation
The historian Carol Karlsen has argued that Susannah Martin was targeted because she represented a threat to the orderly transmission of property in Salem:
- Her father died in 1688, leaving two daughters, a granddaughter and a second wife
- Susannah and her sister received only a small portion of the estate
- The majority passed to the father's second wife, who died shortly afterwards
- This woman then left most of the estate to the granddaughter, excluding Susannah again
- All of Susannah's legal appeals were unsuccessful
- Her ongoing challenge to these inheritance arrangements may have motivated neighbours to support accusations against her
This interpretation suggests that economic motivations could work alongside religious fears to fuel accusations of witchcraft.
Patterns and themes in victim selection
Several clear patterns emerge from examining the nature of Salem's victims:
Social marginalization: Many victims were outcasts or marginal figures - whether through poverty (Sarah Good), violation of social norms (Sarah Osborne), or contentious behaviour (Martha Carrier).
Independent-minded women: Women who displayed independence, ran businesses, or refused to be submissive were particularly vulnerable. Puritan society expected women to be obedient and subordinate; those who violated these expectations aroused suspicion.
The Danger of Female Independence
Women who challenged Puritan gender expectations faced particular danger. Running a business (Bridget Bishop), dressing unconventionally, displaying unsubmissive behaviour (Martha Carrier), or making independent decisions about property all marked women as threats to the social order - and potential witches.
Previous accusations: Several victims (Martha Carrier, Susannah Martin) had faced witchcraft accusations before, suggesting that once someone gained a reputation for witchcraft, they remained vulnerable to future accusations.
Property and economic disputes: The cases of Reverend Burroughs and Susannah Martin reveal that financial conflicts and inheritance disputes could motivate or intensify accusations.
Limited protection from status: Even high social standing (Sarah Osborne) or strong community reputation (Rebecca Nurse) offered limited protection once accusations were made. The testimony of the afflicted girls proved more powerful than community support or social position.
Violation of Puritan norms: Whether through lifestyle (Bridget Bishop), living arrangements (Sarah Osborne), or personality (Martha Carrier), victims often shared the characteristic of failing to meet Puritan expectations for proper behaviour.
Key Points to Remember:
- Approximately 80% of Salem's victims were women, with most male victims connected to accused women
- The first three accused (Tituba, Sarah Good, Sarah Osborne) were all marginal figures or outcasts, establishing a pattern for later accusations
- Victims ranged from the destitute (Sarah Good) to the well-respected (Rebecca Nurse), showing accusations could affect all social levels
- Independent-minded women who violated Puritan gender expectations were particularly vulnerable, including those who ran businesses, dressed unconventionally, or displayed unsubmissive behaviour
- Property disputes and financial conflicts (as in the cases of Susannah Martin and Reverend Burroughs) could underlie accusations, suggesting economic motivations alongside religious fears
- Even strong community support and initial not-guilty verdicts (Rebecca Nurse) could be overturned, demonstrating the power of the afflicted girls' testimony and political pressures on the trials