The Roles of Cotton Mather’s Father and Governor Phips (Edexcel A-Level History): Revision Notes
The Roles of Cotton Mather's Father and Governor Phips
Introduction: the end of the Salem witch-hunt
By September 1692, despite numerous executions, the list of accused witches continued to grow. The accusations now reached prominent figures, including Governor Phips' own wife and Reverend Samuel Willard, who had documented cases of possession. This escalation prompted a significant shift in attitudes towards the witch-hunt, ultimately leading to its end through the combined influence of two key figures: Increase Mather (Cotton Mather's father) and Governor William Phips.
The witch-hunt only began to end when accusations reached the colonial elite themselves. This pattern - where persecution continues until it threatens those in power - is a recurring theme in historical witch-hunts and other forms of mass hysteria.
Increase Mather: the voice of scepticism
Background and influence
Increase Mather was an exceptionally influential figure in colonial Massachusetts. As a well-respected Puritan minister and President of Harvard University, his opinions carried enormous weight throughout the colony. His impressive credentials included:
- Education at Harvard University (enrolled aged just 12 in 1651)
- Studies in Dublin and work as a chaplain in the Channel Islands
- Marriage to Maria Cotton in 1661
- Appointment as President of Harvard in 1685
- Work in London petitioning for a new Massachusetts charter in 1688
Mather's position of authority meant that when he spoke, godly Puritans across Massachusetts listened carefully.
Cases of Conscience Concerning Evil Spirits Persecuting Men (September 1692)
In September 1692, at the height of the witch-hunt, Increase Mather published his most significant intervention: Cases of Conscience Concerning Evil Spirits Persecuting Men. This work was crucial in turning the tide against the trials.
Key arguments in Mather's publication:
- Whilst Mather did not reject the existence of witchcraft entirely, he argued that genuine cases were extremely rare
- He used his extensive knowledge of scripture and recent history to demonstrate the dubious nature of much trial evidence
- He particularly criticised the use of spectral evidence - testimony based on dreams, visions or apparitions
- He warned that the Devil could appear in the form of innocent people, making spectral evidence fundamentally unreliable
- He emphasised that confessions from accused witches had led to innocent blood being shed in the past
- He cautioned that even critics of the trials had found themselves or their families accused, demonstrating how easily accusations could spiral out of control
In his own words, Mather warned that evil angels have sometimes appeared in the likeness of living absent persons and highlighted dismal instances of innocent blood which has been shed by means of the lies of some confessing witches.
Mather's wider influence
Beyond his published work, Increase Mather delivered numerous sermons that, whilst supportive of the trials in principle, were deeply critical of the use of spectral evidence. His criticism was carefully balanced - he did not attack the idea of witchcraft itself, but rather the methods being used to identify witches.
Because Mather had such a wide following and was so well-respected across Massachusetts, godly Puritans began to heed his warnings. The result was dramatic: the number of accusations started to slow down significantly.
Mather's scepticism also led him to engage in discussions with influential officials across Massachusetts, including Governor William Phips. These conversations would prove decisive in ending the trials.
Governor William Phips: from supporter to opponent
Background and early career
William Phips had a remarkable life story that took him from colonial trader to royal governor:
- Born in Maine in 1651 to a moderately prosperous family of fur and weapons traders
- Became a sea captain and treasure hunter
- Travelled to London in 1683 to seek funding for investigating wrecks of sunken Spanish ships in the Caribbean
- Successfully recovered treasure, gaining royal favour
- Knighted by James II in 1687 at the age of 36
- Returned to Boston where he met Increase and Cotton Mather
- Briefly served as Provost Marshal General for New England
Religious conversion and the Mather connection
In 1689, Phips was baptised in Cotton Mather's church and began to take religion much more seriously than before. Some historians have suggested this sudden conversion may have been calculated to gain favour with the influential Mather family. Regardless of his motivations, Phips became deeply influenced by the Mathers' interest in witchcraft during this period.
Phips worked closely with Increase Mather in London to renew the Massachusetts Bay Colony charter. Mather used his considerable influence to secure Phips' appointment as Governor under the new charter. This patronage created a relationship of debt and influence that would prove crucial in ending the witch-hunt.
Initial support for the witch-hunt
When Mather and Phips returned to Massachusetts, the witch-hunt had already begun. Initially, Phips supported the accusations wholeheartedly:
- He ordered prisoners to be put in chains
- He created the Court of Oyer and Terminer - a special court established specifically to hear witchcraft cases
- He appointed William Stoughton (his lieutenant-governor) as chief judge
Phips may have later regretted his choice of Stoughton, who proved unrelenting in his pursuit of witches and took the lead in demanding that spectral evidence be heard in court.
Phips did show some signs of discomfort with the trials' progress. He attempted to give a reprieve (temporary stay of execution) to Rebecca Nurse, demonstrating an early softening of his position. However, this reprieve was overturned, and Nurse was executed.
The decision to end the trials
After weeks of careful consideration, and heavily influenced by his relationship with Increase Mather, Phips took decisive action. On 26 October 1692, he:
- Closed down the Court of Oyer and Terminer
- Released those who were still under investigation
- Forbade the committing of any more accused persons without unavoidable necessity
However, the end of the trials did not mean immediate freedom for all. As was common in both England and the colonies, those who had spent time in jail still had to find money to cover their fees. One woman, Margaret Jacobs, had to wait in prison until another citizen paid her costs. Tituba and her husband John Indian had their lives spared but remained enslaved and were sold to a new master.
Phips' justification: the letter of October 1692
A letter dated 12 October 1692, written by Phips to an unknown recipient in England, reveals his perspective on the trials and his reasons for ending them. This primary source is invaluable for understanding his motivations.
Phips' stated reasons for establishing the court:
- When he first arrived, he found the province miserably harassed with horrible witchcraft
- People were experiencing preternatural torments - being scalded, having pins stuck in their flesh, being dragged into fire and water
- Many had already been committed to prison before his arrival
- The loud cries and clamours of friends of the afflicted people, combined with advice from the Deputy Governor and others, persuaded him to establish the Court of Oyer and Terminer
Phips' explanation for ending the trials:
- He admitted he was absent for most of the proceedings, fighting against enemies in the eastern part of the country
- He had depended on the judgement of the court regarding proper procedures
- When he returned home, he found many persons in a strange ferment of dissatisfaction
- Upon investigation, he discovered that the Devil was appearing in the name and shape of several persons who were doubtless innocent and of good reputation
- He had now forbidden committing any more accused persons and would shelter those already committed from proceedings where there might be suspicion of wrong to innocents
- He put a stop to printing any discourse about the matter to avoid needless disputes and an inextinguishable flame of controversy
Defensive tone and political motivations:
Significantly, Phips' letter adopts a defensive tone, suggesting he was concerned about his reputation:
- He explicitly states: I know my enemies are seeking to turn it all upon me
- He asks the recipient to give a true understanding of the matter
- He emphasises that he stopped proceedings as soon as he understood the danger to innocent subjects
This suggests that Phips' motivations were not purely humanitarian or influenced solely by Increase Mather. He was also concerned about protecting his political position and avoiding blame for miscarriages of justice.
The combined influence of Mather and Phips
The end of the Salem witch-hunt resulted from the convergence of several factors:
Increase Mather's contribution:
- Provided intellectual and theological justification for ending the trials
- Undermined confidence in spectral evidence through published works and sermons
- Used his religious authority to sway public opinion among godly Puritans
- Engaged in direct discussions with political leaders, particularly Phips
Governor Phips' contribution:
- Held the political power necessary to close the court
- Acted decisively once convinced of the problems with the trials
- Released prisoners and prevented further accusations
- Used his authority to suppress further inflammatory publications about witchcraft
The relationship between the two:
- Phips owed his governorship partly to Mather's influence
- Mather's scepticism directly influenced Phips' decision-making
- Their close relationship meant Mather could access and persuade the person with ultimate authority
Growing concerns among the elite:
- Accusations were now reaching prominent figures (including Phips' wife)
- This created personal motivation for ending the trials
- Fear that the witch-hunt was spiralling out of control
- Concerns about damage to the colony's reputation
Significance and consequences
The actions of Increase Mather and Governor Phips in autumn 1692 were decisive in ending the Salem witch-hunt. Their intervention demonstrates several important historical points:
- The power of religious authority (Mather) combined with political authority (Phips) to effect change
- The vulnerability of witch-hunts to elite intervention when elites themselves became threatened
- The importance of intellectual challenge to flawed legal procedures (particularly spectral evidence)
- The role of personal relationships in historical events (Mather's influence over Phips)
By closing the Court of Oyer and Terminer on 26 October 1692, Governor Phips effectively ended the Salem witch-hunt. No more trials would be held using spectral evidence, and whilst some accused persons faced later proceedings, the intense phase of persecution was over.
Key Points to Remember:
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Increase Mather, Cotton Mather's father and President of Harvard, published Cases of Conscience Concerning Evil Spirits Persecuting Men in September 1692, which criticised the use of spectral evidence and warned against miscarriages of justice.
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Governor William Phips initially supported the witch-hunt, creating the Court of Oyer and Terminer, but was influenced by Increase Mather (who had helped secure his governorship) to change his position.
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On 26 October 1692, Phips closed the Court of Oyer and Terminer and released those still under investigation, effectively ending the Salem witch-hunt.
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Multiple motivations drove Phips' decision: Mather's intellectual arguments, accusations reaching elite figures (including Phips' own wife), concerns about his political reputation, and recognition that innocent people of good character were being accused.
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The end of the witch-hunt demonstrates the importance of elite intervention and the power of combining religious authority (Mather) with political authority (Phips) to halt persecution.