Weakened Authority Following the 1688 Revolution (Edexcel A-Level History): Revision Notes
Weakened Authority Following the 1688 Revolution
Massachusetts Bay Colony government: 1630–85
Early settlement and Puritan migration
The first English settlers arrived in Salem in April 1630. Governor John Winthrop led one of the earliest voyages, bringing nearly 800 colonists with him. He carried a colonial charter that confirmed Massachusetts as a Crown possession.
The colonial charter was a crucial legal document that established Massachusetts as officially belonging to the English Crown while granting certain rights of self-governance to the settlers. This charter would later become a major point of contention between the colony and successive English monarchs.
During the 1630s, England's Puritans faced severe persecution. King Charles I and his Archbishop of Canterbury, William Laud, pursued high church policies and punished religious radicals through the Star Chamber (a royal court at Westminster Palace where Privy Councillors acted as judges without a jury). As a result, approximately 10,000 Puritans migrated to Massachusetts between 1630 and 1642, seeking religious freedom.
Economic growth and Puritan dominance
By the 1640s and 1650s, the colony's economy strengthened considerably. Successful trade in fur and lumber, combined with a flourishing fishing industry, led to the emergence of a merchant class. However, despite this economic progress, the government remained firmly under Puritan control.
Key features of Puritan governance:
- All residents were required to pay taxes to the church, even if they were not members
- Only Puritan church members had the exclusive right to vote for local officials
- Non-Puritans could be banished from the colony for spreading dissent
- Puritanism was central to both government and society in places like Salem
The Puritan governance system created a theocracy where religious membership determined political rights. This concentration of power in the hands of a religious minority would become increasingly controversial as the colony grew more diverse and economically complex.
Charles II and attempts to centralise control
King Charles II (reigned 1660–85) was determined to extend royal influence over his colonies by centralising control in the hands of the royal court. Massachusetts became the most resistant colony to these efforts.
Charles attempted to:
- Revoke the royal charter in 1678 and 1681
- Consolidate all New England colonies into one unified territory to increase central control
The Puritan authorities resisted these attempts strongly. Although Charles made several efforts, the charter was not formally annulled until 1684, near the end of his reign.
The reign of James II and governorship of Sir Edmund Andros
The Dominion of New England
When Charles II died in 1685, his Catholic brother James II succeeded him. From 1686 onwards, James was able to administer all New England colonies as the Dominion of New England, placing them under the control of a single governor: Sir Edmund Andros.
The Dominion of New England included:
- Massachusetts
- Plymouth Colony
- Rhode Island
- Connecticut
- New Hampshire
James II created this unified territory because he was:
- Apprehensive about the independence the New England colonies had enjoyed
- Concerned about military threats from the French
- Worried about conflicts with native tribes that regularly clashed with English settlers
While the English government viewed unification as a sensible administrative measure, many Puritan settlers resented it deeply.
The Dominion experienced little success, and when the colonists saw an opportunity to end it after the Glorious Revolution, they acted quickly.
Andros' unpopular governance
Sir Edmund Andros had experience as a soldier and had served as bailiff of Guernsey, but several factors made him unpopular with the colonists:
- His high church tendencies (favouring elaborate Anglican ceremonies)
- His unwillingness to include well-established local Puritans on his council
- Suspicions that he had Catholic sympathies
Andros introduced several controversial policies:
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Religious interference: He attempted to fulfil Charles II's wish for Church of England services to be delivered in Puritan churches. Many Puritans suspected him not only of high church Anglicanism but of harbouring Catholic sympathies.
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New taxation: He introduced new taxes, particularly focusing on import and export duties. Since Massachusetts had no previous tax laws, this created severe resentment. However, these taxes were necessary because the colony was becoming a drain on the English Exchequer.
These policies contributed significantly to his eventual downfall and the subsequent lack of authority after the Glorious Revolution.
The Glorious Revolution in England
Background to the Revolution
To understand events in Massachusetts, it is essential to understand what happened in England. In April 1687, James II issued a Declaration of Indulgence, suspending existing penal laws against Catholics. This deeply unpopular move was followed by him dissolving parliament in summer 1687, increasing opposition from the political establishment.
In May 1688, seven bishops refused to read another Declaration of Indulgence. When they were arrested, their subsequent acquittal was met with public rejoicing. Seven leading political figures, terrified at the prospect of a Catholic heir after James' wife became pregnant, sent an invitation to William of Orange to bring a military force against James.
William and Mary become joint rulers
William arrived in England, and in December 1688, James fled the country. A Convention Parliament was established in January 1689, declaring that William would rule jointly with his wife Mary (James' Protestant daughter).
Key constitutional changes:
- William and Mary were presented with a Declaration of Rights, which affirmed constitutional principles such as:
- Prohibition of unparliamentary taxation
- The need for regular parliaments
- Pressure from William ensured a Toleration Act was passed in May 1689, granting many Protestant groups (but not Catholics) religious freedom
Meanwhile, James attempted to raise an army in Ireland to reclaim the throne. This led to William leading an army against him at the Battle of the Boyne in 1690, which resulted in victory for William's forces.
Impact of the Revolution on Massachusetts
The revolt against Andros (April 1689)
News of the Glorious Revolution reached Massachusetts in April 1689. The colonists of Boston, who already felt immense resentment against James and his agents, immediately revolted against Governor Andros.
How the revolt unfolded:
- The revolt began with clandestine meetings of leading Puritans in Boston
- When a messenger arrived with news of the Glorious Revolution, Andros had him arrested
- Despite this, the news spread quickly throughout the colony
- A militia that Andros had assembled mutinied, fearing they were being used in a popish plot (a conspiracy to replace Protestant authorities with Catholics)
The Events of 18 April 1689:
On this pivotal day, the Boston revolt against Governor Andros reached its climax:
- Rebellious militia companies began arresting officials in and around Boston
- They surrounded Andros' residence at Fort Mary
- The rebels declared themselves supporters of William of Orange
- They claimed they had no choice but to act in the face of the rumoured popish plot by Andros, who had been originally appointed by the Catholic James II
Andros attempted to flee by boat but was captured and taken into custody. He was eventually sent to England to face trial, though he later became colonial governor of Virginia.
Leadership of the revolt: Increase and Cotton Mather
The rebels were led by a father and son, Increase and Cotton Mather, both well-known Puritan ministers. Increase Mather's predominant role in Puritan Massachusetts meant he was ideally suited to lead negotiations in England over a new charter. He spent the years 1688–92 in London advocating on behalf of the colony.
Between 1689 and 1692, one of Mather's allies, Simon Bradstreet, acted as governor. When Mather returned to Massachusetts in May 1692 with the new governor, Sir William Phips, the Salem witch-hunt had already begun.
Immediate aftermath of the revolt
The various colonies within the Dominion were able to restore their own charters relatively quickly. However, Massachusetts proved a more difficult issue to settle. Immediately after the revolt, it was governed by a council comprising:
- Andros' former agents
- Former leaders of the colony
- Some high-profile Puritans
The new charter of 1691
Eventually, in October 1691, Massachusetts was given a new charter and became known as the Province of Massachusetts Bay. However, King William was fearful that Massachusetts could once again fall into religious rule, so he enforced significant changes.
Key provisions of the new charter:
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Voting eligibility: Now based on property ownership rather than religious denomination. This was a major change that ended Puritan monopoly on political power.
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Crown-appointed officials: All officials were to be appointed by the Crown rather than elected. This removed local control over governance.
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Governor's veto power: The governor could block any laws passed by the council, giving the Crown significant control over colonial legislation.
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Land title fees: All landownership titles issued under the now defunct Massachusetts Bay Colony were declared void. Puritan landowners were required to pay fees to challenge and reclaim ownership. Much of the money collected through these fees was used to pay for fortifications against increased Indian attacks that plagued Salem.
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Restricted town meetings: The number of town meetings that could be held was restricted, as these were often sources of discontent and opposition to royal authority.
How weakened authority contributed to the witch-hunt
The political upheaval created an atmosphere of uncertainty and fear in Salem. The residents felt their way of life had been disturbed by outside forces. The revolt that removed the apparently oppressive Governor Andros had paradoxically resulted in few meaningful improvements for the Puritan majority.
Consequences of weakened authority:
- Less representation from local Puritan leaders: The new charter gave more power to Crown-appointed officials rather than elected local leaders
- Difficulty resolving disputes: Problems and disputes in the community could not be settled as easily as before
- Lack of legal authority: The transitional period between 1689 and 1691 created a power vacuum
- Psychological impact: As things started to go wrong, the majority-Puritan population saw the Devil at work
This context of political instability and loss of local control created fertile ground for the witch-hunt that began in 1692.
Indian threats and economic crisis
Background to Indian conflicts
Until the mid-1980s, historians generally discounted Indian attacks as a primary cause of the witch craze. However, more recent historians such as James Kences and Mary Beth Norton have given this factor greater credibility.
Indian attacks had been a reality since the earliest days of European settlement in North America, but towards the end of the 17th century they intensified, especially in Massachusetts.
King Philip's War (1675–78)
King Philip's War, often referred to as the First Indian War, took place between 1675 and 1678. This conflict devastated towns across Massachusetts, Connecticut, Rhode Island and Maine.
Impact of the war:
- One-tenth of all military-age men were killed
- In Salem, the constant threat of attack caused residents to become extremely wary
- Towns were destroyed and communities disrupted
This was one of the bloodiest conflicts in American colonial history relative to population size, leaving deep psychological scars on the surviving communities.
Increased attacks after Andros' overthrow
After the overthrow of Andros in 1689, colonial defences were significantly weakened. Fewer troops were available for military service, and attacks became more common. Colonists were regularly killed in these raids.
The young girls who gave evidence at the Salem witch trials would certainly have been affected by witnessing their friends and neighbours becoming victims of such attacks. A number of outsiders who had survived Indian attacks moved to Salem in the years immediately preceding the witch-hunt, bringing their trauma with them.
King William's War (1688–97)
The Salem trials coincided with King William's War, also referred to as the Second Indian War. This conflict was part of the wider Nine Years' War (1688–97) that William of Orange was fighting against France in Europe. Both European sides made alliances with various Indian tribes in North America.
Puritan attitudes towards Indians
In the Puritan mindset, Indians were viewed as:
- Devil-worshippers who were doing everything possible to prevent a godly society from being created
- Allies of the hated French and Spanish (Catholic powers)
- Subhuman beings in need of extermination (according to contemporary accounts)
This dehumanisation of Indians and association with the Devil created a psychological link between external military threats and internal spiritual threats.
Connection between Indian fears and witch fears
Recent historical theories have placed emphasis on the role of fear of Indian attacks in fostering deep-seated paranoia. Puritans believed God was willing to allow the Devil's agents—in the form of Indians—to punish Puritan settlers for their sins.
Evidence of the connection:
- During spectral visions, the afflicted repeatedly described seeing the "black man" who resembled an Indian
- Witches and the Devil were said to threaten victims with violence similar to Indian attacks: they would "tear to pieces" or "knock in the head" those who opposed them
- Contemporary writer Joshua Scottow explicitly linked Indian attacks and witch attacks as related phenomena, both instigated by God as punishment
Tituba's possible Indian origins: A number of historians have suggested that Tituba, one of the instigators of the craze (a healer and accused witch), was Indian rather than African. This would have strengthened the perceived connection between witchcraft and the Indian threat in the minds of Salem residents.
Mary Beth Norton's interpretation
Historian Mary Beth Norton argues that the Salem witch crisis must be understood in the context of King William's War. She writes:
The Lord was simultaneously punishing New England in two different ways – through the Second Indian War on the northeastern frontier and through the operations of witchcraft in Essex County. The assaults from the visible and invisible worlds became closely entwined in New Englanders' minds.
Norton emphasises that the connections between Indian warfare and witchcraft permeated the examinations and trials. The "black man" in spectral visions resembled an Indian, and the threats made by witches mirrored the violence of Indian raids.
Joshua Scottow, writing shortly after the witchcraft crisis, tied these themes together. He had previously referred to several Indian sachems (leaders) as "Satan's Emissaries" and presented Indian attacks and witch attacks as related phenomena, both instigated by God as punishment for the community's failings.
Key Points to Remember:
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Political instability created vulnerability: The overthrow of Andros in 1689 and the new charter of 1691 left Massachusetts with weakened local authority and less representation for Puritan leaders, making it harder to resolve community disputes
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Loss of Puritan control: The new charter changed voting rights from religious membership to property ownership, and gave Crown-appointed officials power over the previously self-governing Puritan community
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Dual threats intensified fear: The coincidence of King William's War (1688-97) with political upheaval created a sense that both visible enemies (Indians) and invisible enemies (witches) were attacking the community simultaneously
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Indians and witches linked in Puritan minds: Contemporary sources show Puritans explicitly connected Indian attacks with witchcraft, viewing both as manifestations of the Devil's work and God's punishment for their sins
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Power vacuum enabled witch-hunt: The period between 1689-1692 lacked stable legal authority, and when things went wrong, the Puritan population attributed problems to supernatural causes rather than having effective secular mechanisms to address community tensions