Economic Crises (Edexcel A-Level History): Revision Notes
Economic crises
Introduction
The East Anglian witch-hunt of 1645-47 emerged during a period of severe economic crisis. Three interconnected factors created an atmosphere of suspicion and fear that fuelled witch accusations: agricultural disasters, long-term changes in land ownership, and the immediate economic impact of the Civil War itself.
Crop failure
Agricultural disasters of the mid-1640s
The years 1645-46 brought catastrophic conditions for farming communities across East Anglia. Unusual weather patterns devastated agricultural production:
- Wet summers combined with freezing winters led to repeated harvest failures
- In 1646, the summer was particularly wet, causing widespread disease among both livestock and crops
- The staple crops of wheat and rye became inedible, rotting with ergot (a fungal disease that particularly affects rye)
- Consuming ergot-infected food caused ergotism, a dangerous poisoning that produced headaches, vomiting and spasms
- Some historians have suggested that ergot poisoning may have caused the hallucinations reported by some suspected witches
Ergot and its effects: Ergot is a fungal disease that particularly affects rye. When consumed, ergot-infected grain causes ergotism - a dangerous poisoning that produces headaches, vomiting, and spasms. The hallucinations caused by ergot poisoning have led some historians to suggest a link between contaminated food supplies and the visions reported by accused witches.
Economic consequences
The agricultural crisis created severe economic hardship:
- Prices for essential foods rose dramatically - meat and cheese became much more expensive
- Despite Charles I's surrender in 1646, wheat prices increased by 20 percent
- Desperate families had to consume their seed-corn (good quality corn normally set aside for planting the following year), threatening future harvests
- In October 1645 and 1646, just when harvests should have been abundant, heavy rain caused crops to rot and fields to turn to mud
The seed-corn crisis: When families were forced to eat their seed-corn to survive, they threatened not only their current survival but also their ability to plant crops for the following year. This created a devastating cycle where each harvest failure made the next year's prospects even worse.
Religious interpretation
The extreme weather had profound psychological effects in this deeply religious society. Contemporaries described the conditions as the worst wet weather in living memory, and the disaster was viewed as a sign from heaven - evidence of divine displeasure.
Puritan interpretation of disasters: Puritan preachers throughout East Anglia interpreted the economic crisis as punishment from God. Many saw the suffering as a sign that Charles should not be returned to the throne and should face punishment. In this atmosphere of confusion and misery, people readily blamed witches for their misfortunes.
Changing land use
Enclosure of common land
Long-term changes in agricultural practices had created deep resentment in East Anglian communities. Throughout the previous century, common land had been increasingly enclosed by wealthy landowners.
As rich landowners acquired more land for cattle farming, poorer members of parishes felt excluded from prosperity:
- Tenant farmers and peasants faced threats to their livelihoods through inflation and growing inequality
- Traditional neighbourliness broke down as wealthier inhabitants stopped offering customary charity such as bread and beer
Impact on tenants and the poor
Landlords increasingly prioritised profit over traditional obligations:
- Across East Anglia, landlords evicted long-settled tenants to enclose land for more profitable single-product farming
- Tenant farmers who had lived on their land for generations defended their rights with mixed success
- Wealthy residents were required to pay poor rates (a local tax levied at parish level to finance support of the poor)
- Some wealthy people resented these payments, viewing them as subsidising what they saw as lazy lifestyles
- Many wealthy Puritans in East Anglia saw idleness as a sign of sinfulness
Case Study: Sir Miles Sandys and the Isle of Ely
The Isle of Ely demonstrates how enclosure created lasting bitterness:
- Sir Miles Sandys acted as a particularly aggressive landlord
- In the 1620s, he acquired large estates and at Sutton enclosed 4,000 acres of common land
- This deprived poor people of grazing land and fuel sources
- Thirty families who had built cottages on the land were evicted
- Local inhabitants presented a petition to the Court of Chancery with 100 signatures, but it failed
- Riots erupted in the late 1630s, and resentment continued into the 1640s
- Several suspected witches who faced trials at Ely in 1647 had connections to the earlier unrest over enclosure
Growing suspicion of the poor
Economic division created an atmosphere of mutual suspicion. Even when wealthier people made donations to beggars, they viewed recipients with distrust.
Fear of revenge magic: When donations went to poor, older women, donors feared they might use magic in revenge if they felt they had not received enough. Not all poor people faced suspicion, but it becomes easier to understand why so many from this group became caught up in witch accusations.
Economic impact of the Civil War
Inflation and price rises
The war dramatically worsened existing economic problems. Inflation had been an issue for years, but war accelerated it significantly:
- Since the war's start, livestock prices increased by 12 percent
- Grain prices rose by 15 percent
- The main cause was the enormous resources consumed by armies on both sides
- Soldiers regularly confiscated horses as they marched through the countryside
- Food from the land was consumed in huge quantities by military forces
- While prices rose sharply, wages remained static
The weekly assessment tax
Parliament created new taxation to fund the war effort:
- In 1643, Parliament introduced the weekly assessment to meet increasing war costs
- In the counties of the Eastern Association, this tax was collected at a rate 12 times higher than the hated Ship Money tax of the 1630s
- This massive tax burden added to the economic misery of ordinary people
The crushing burden of war taxation: The weekly assessment tax being 12 times higher than Ship Money represents an enormous increase in taxation. Ship Money had been one of the grievances that helped trigger the Civil War, yet Parliament's war tax far exceeded it - creating severe hardship for already struggling communities.
Case study: Margaret Moone
Case Study: Margaret Moone
Margaret Moone's story illustrates how economic hardship led to witch accusations:
- She was one of the first witches accused during the hunt, from Thorpe-le-Soken (near Hopkins' home parish of Manningtree)
- She had been evicted from her cottage when another person offered her landlord ten shillings more per year in rent than she could afford
- Forced into begging, she became vulnerable to suspicion
- She was later blamed for the deaths of livestock and crop failures
- She was also accused of murdering a child
The connection between economic crisis and witch accusations
These three economic factors worked together to create the conditions for the witch-hunt. Agricultural disasters created immediate suffering and fear, while long-term changes in land ownership had broken down traditional community bonds. The Civil War's economic impact added new layers of hardship and instability.
Scapegoating the vulnerable: Poor, older women who begged for survival became easy scapegoats. In a deeply religious Puritan society, people sought explanations for suffering in supernatural terms. Witchcraft accusations provided a way to blame specific individuals for economic misfortunes.
The breakdown of the legal system during the war meant that local authorities welcomed Matthew Hopkins and John Stearne, who appeared to offer legitimate expertise during a crisis when both legal knowledge and efficiency were in short supply.
Remember!
Key Points to Remember:
- Three economic crises combined to fuel the witch-hunt: crop failures, enclosure of common land, and Civil War inflation
- Ergot disease rotted staple crops in 1645-46, causing price rises and potentially causing hallucinations in those who ate infected grain
- Enclosure had broken down traditional charity and neighbourliness, creating resentment between rich and poor
- The weekly assessment tax was 12 times higher than Ship Money, adding to economic hardship
- Poor, older women who begged became particularly vulnerable to accusations when wealthier people feared revenge magic
- In this Puritan society, economic disasters were interpreted as divine punishment, making it easier to blame witches for misfortune