The Re-Establishment of Traditional Authority (Edexcel A-Level History): Revision Notes
The Re-Establishment of Traditional Authority
The end of the witch-hunt, 1647
By the end of 1647, the brief period of intense witch-hunting in East Anglia had come to an end. Matthew Hopkins had died, probably from tuberculosis, and his partner John Stearne returned home to his wife and family. Both men must have realised that the climate had fundamentally changed – judges and juries were now far more reluctant to convict those accused of witchcraft.
Financial pressures and mounting criticism
The witch-hunt had become increasingly expensive for local communities. Across East Anglia, particularly in Suffolk, the costs of keeping and prosecuting suspected witches had spiralled to unsustainable levels. Towns and parishes faced several financial burdens:
- Costs of detaining suspects
- Fees for witch-finders like Hopkins and Stearne
- Expenses for watchers, searchers and other investigators
- Court costs for prosecutions
With funds still needed to finance the ongoing Civil War, witch-hunting came to be viewed as an unnecessary luxury that communities could no longer afford. This financial pressure would prove to be one of the decisive factors in ending the witch-hunt.
Legal challenges and unpaid debts
John Stearne faced significant legal difficulties as the witch-hunt ended:
- Lawsuits were filed against him to overturn wrongful convictions
- He was taken to court to recover fees from communities
- Many debts owed to him for his work were never paid
- Stearne chose not to pursue these debts, suggesting he knew it was futile
In his 1648 book A Confirmation and Discovery of Witchcraft, Stearne defended himself against accusations that he had profited from the witch-hunt. He claimed that after considering his expenses for travelling to various places, assizes and gaol-deliveries, he never made as much money as he did from his regular calling and profession. He also denied ever taking bribes or showing favouritism.
Stearne also defended Hopkins' reputation after his death, stating that Hopkins died peacefully at Manningtree after a long illness from consumption (tuberculosis), not troubled by conscience as some had claimed.
The return of traditional authority in East Anglia
As the costs of witch-hunting became unbearable, traditional forms of authority began to reassert themselves across East Anglia. This shift had several important causes:
The end of major fighting
The majority of fighting in the English Civil War ceased when King Charles I surrendered to the Scots at Newark in May 1646. This had several consequences:
- East Anglia became safe enough to receive assize judges more regularly
- Professional judges could now oversee witchcraft trials rather than local commissioners
- These experienced judges were more skeptical and careful in their proceedings
The return of Royalist gentry
Although Parliament maintained overall control of the country, many Royalist gentry were able to return to their estates in East Anglia. This had important effects:
- They began to punish their tenants and servants who had fought for Parliament
- They challenged the Puritan-dominated local authorities
- Even clergy accused of being Royalist sympathisers began taking up new positions across the region
The return of traditional authority represented a fundamental shift in power dynamics. The Royalist gentry and experienced assize judges brought with them more conservative, skeptical approaches to witchcraft accusations – directly challenging the radical Puritan methods that had enabled Hopkins and Stearne's witch-hunt.
Reduced need for scapegoats
The end of the Civil War brought some relief to the suffering population, even though harvests remained poor for several more years. With reduced fear and anxiety, authorities in towns and parishes:
- Were less fearful than they had been during the war
- No longer needed scapegoats to blame for their troubles
- Became more willing to acquit accused witches
The Puritan-dominated pursuit of witches was now being challenged and disrupted by the previously established authorities who were returning to power.
Key trial cases showing the shift, late 1646
Two important cases in late 1646 demonstrated that traditional authority had been restored and that Hopkins' and Stearne's days as witch-finders were numbered.
Case Study: King's Lynn, 24 September 1646
Hopkins visited King's Lynn to give evidence against nine accused witches he had interrogated. This trial showed the changing attitudes:
Key features:
- The judge was Miles Corbett, who had previously found witches guilty at Yarmouth
- The mayor, aldermen and JPs attended to signal their authority
- Eight women and one man were accused
- All prisoners pleaded not guilty
Outcome:
- Seven of the nine suspects were acquitted
- Only two were convicted
- Hopkins received just £2 for his testimony and left promptly
Significance: This represented a dramatic shift – instead of mass convictions, the majority of suspects were found not guilty despite Hopkins' testimony.
Case Study: Ely, 26 September 1646
Just two days later, three women accused of witchcraft were tried at the assize court at Ely:
Key details:
- The judge was John Godbold, who had served as special commissioner at Bury St Edmunds the previous summer
- All three women were acquitted
- This was possibly at the direction of Judge Godbold himself
Significance: These trials demonstrated that experienced judges were now taking control of witchcraft prosecutions and were far more skeptical than the local commissioners who had overseen earlier trials.
Critical questions at the Norfolk assizes, 1647
At the Norfolk assizes of 1647, which tried several of Hopkins' and Stearne's cases, the presiding judges received a list of critical questions. These questions had been compiled by leading gentry who opposed aspects of the witch-hunt.
Influence of skepticism
The questions were heavily influenced by the skepticism presented by John Gaule in his book (see below). Hopkins was clearly on the defensive – he responded to these questions in his book Discovery of Witches, which he addressed to the assize judges of Norfolk.
The critical questions posed to Hopkins
The questions challenged the fundamental basis of Hopkins' methods:
About Hopkins himself:
- Was Hopkins himself a witch because he had great knowledge of sorcery?
- Did Hopkins meet with the Devil and receive the Devil's Book listing all witches in England?
- Where did Hopkins acquire his skills?
About the evidence used:
- Why are so many condemned for strange marks on their bodies when most can be explained naturally?
- If the Devil is a spirit, how can he or his familiars desire to suck witches' blood?
About investigative methods:
- Both watching and walking are unreasonable methods that will make people say anything
- The swimming test is not allowed by law, so why did Hopkins insist on using it?
Theological objection:
Believing that witches and the Devil have power to kill and maim is blasphemous. God has the power to place limits on the Devil. Believing in witches' power suggests a lack of faith in God's power.
This theological challenge struck at the heart of Hopkins' work – it suggested that his entire approach was not just legally questionable, but religiously dangerous.
These questions were clearly well-prepared and highly critical. According to Hopkins' book, he claimed to have answers for each question, although we cannot know if he answered so eloquently in actual court proceedings.
The role of John Gaule
John Gaule emerged as an important critic of Hopkins and Stearne's witch-hunting activities in mid-1646.
Background and position
- Gaule was the minister of Great Staughton
- His parish lay between St Neots and Kimbolton, where suspected witches had been investigated
- He was therefore well-placed to observe the witch-hunt's impact
Growing concerns
Gaule became concerned about the witch-hunt for several reasons:
- His parishioners were increasingly blaming witches for their misfortunes
- He believed their own sins were to blame, not witchcraft
- He heard about the confessions at Huntingdon
- He visited one of the detained suspects to hear her account
Gaule's visit to a detained suspect did not convince him that the witch-finders were doing noble work. Instead, it seems to have confirmed his doubts about their methods and motives. This firsthand observation would inform his influential critique of the witch-hunt.
Gaule's influence
His skeptical views were influential in shaping the critical questions posed to Hopkins at the Norfolk assizes of 1647. His work helped to provide intellectual and theological justification for opposing the witch-hunt.
Gaule represented a more traditional, established religious authority that was beginning to challenge the more radical Puritan approach to witch-hunting that had flourished during the chaos of the Civil War.
Exam focus: analysing the decline of the witch-hunt
When answering exam questions about why the witch-hunt ended, consider these interconnected factors:
Financial factors:
- Unsustainable costs for communities
- War effort taking priority for funding
- Witch-finders' fees becoming controversial
Political factors:
- End of Civil War reducing fear and chaos
- Return of Royalist gentry challenging Puritan dominance
- Return of assize judges bringing traditional legal procedures
Legal factors:
- Experienced judges more skeptical than local commissioners
- Critical questions challenging Hopkins' methods
- Increasing acquittals at trials
Religious/intellectual factors:
- John Gaule's theological critique
- Questions about whether belief in witchcraft showed lack of faith in God
- Challenges to the legality of methods like swimming
Key Points to Remember:
- By late 1647, the East Anglian witch-hunt had collapsed due to financial pressures, legal challenges and the restoration of traditional authority
- The end of major Civil War fighting in May 1646 allowed assize judges to return regularly, leading to more acquittals
- Two key trials in September 1646 (King's Lynn and Ely) showed the shift, with most accused being acquitted
- At the Norfolk assizes of 1647, critical questions challenged the fundamental basis of Hopkins' methods and theology
- John Gaule, minister of Great Staughton, emerged as an influential critic whose skepticism shaped opposition to the witch-hunt
- The return of Royalist gentry and experienced assize judges brought more conservative, skeptical approaches that undermined the witch-hunt